Article Figures & Data
Figures
- Figure 1.
Hypothesized Pathways by Which Yoga Intervention May Enhance Cardiovascular Risk Profiles
Tables
- Table 1.
Characteristics of eligible studies investigating the effects of yoga and yoga-based programs on specific physiological and anthropometric indices of CVD risk and related clinical endpoints
Study Design Total Sample Size Location Year Published N % <25 25–40 41–60 >60 India US Canada Eurc Australia Japan Thailand 2000 1990–9 1980–9 1970–9 Cross-sectional studies 1 1.4 1 1 1 Studies of changes during 1 to 2 yoga sessions Not including comparison group or condition 1 1.4 1 1 1 Including comparison group or condition 7 10.1 4 3 4 2 1 3 4 Uncontrolled clinical trials (>2 yoga sessions) (Intervention 2 full days to 6 months) 25 36.2 15 2 5 3 21 1 1 2 7 7 6 5 Non-randomized controlled trials (>2 yoga sessions)* (Intervention 3 weeks to 12 months) 15 21.7 7 2 3 3 11 1 3 3 3 4 5 Randomized controlled trials (>2 yoga sessions) (Intervention 8 days to 12 months) 22 31.9 3 10 4 5 11 1 8 1 1 8 8 4 2 Total number of studies evaluated 70 29 17 12 12 47 3 1 15 1 2 1 22 22 14 12 % Total 41.4 24.3 17.1 17.1 67.1 4.3 1.4 21.4 1.4 2.9 1.4 31.4 31.4 20.0 17.1 * Including one study that also evaluated change during 1 to 2 yoga sessions138; grand totals are adjusted to count this study only once.
- Table 2.
Studies investigating the effects of yoga and yoga-based programs on specific physiologic and anthropometric indices of CVD risk and related clinical endpoints, by study population
Study Population Study Design Total Cross-Sectional Studies Changes over 1 to 2 Yoga Sessions Uncontrolled Trials Non-randomized Controlled Trials Randomized Controlled Trials Yoga Alone Multiple Interventions Yoga Alone Multiple Interventions Yoga Alone Multiple Interventions Yoga Alone Multiple Interventions Yoga Alone Multiple Interventions Healthy young and middle-aged adults 1 8 11 3 7 1 5 35* Healthy elderly adults 1 1 2 Healthy children and adolescents 3 3 Adults with hypertension/CVD or at risk for CVD 2 2 6 1 4 6 21 Adults with diabetes mellitus 3 1 1 5 Adults with cancer 1 1 Adults with serious mental illness 1 1 Children and adults with asthma 1 1 Children and adults with epilepsy 1 1 Totals 1 8 17 8 13 2 15 7 70 Total yoga alone or with biofeedback 53* Total multiple interventions 17 * Including one study that also evaluated change during 1 to 2 yoga sessions138; grand totals are adjusted to count this study only once.
- Table 3.
Characteristics and relevant endpoints of eligible studies. Under endpoint categories, a plus indicates a beneficial change in at least one marker; a negative sign indicates no change in any of the markers in a specific category
Reference, Location Sample Size (Yoga, Controls) Duration Comparison Group/Condition Intervention Endpoints Examined* IR indices Lipids Body Size/Comp Blood Pressure Coagulation Oxidative Stress Symp/PS Markers Clin. End Points Cross-sectional Studies Healthy adults India96 105 (35, 35, 35) NA Raja M <5 years; no M experience Raja M experience ≥5 years X+ X+ X+ Changes during 1–2 yoga sessions Healthy adults Germany110 25 (12, 13) 1 session Relaxed reading (controls) Hatha yoga (experienced practitioners) X− X− Australia142 23 (12, 11) 2 sessions Reading 15 km run (elite runners) or M (experienced meditators) X+ India145 7 1 session Non-targeted thinking Yoga M (silent chanting) X+ India144 27 1 session 2 non-yoga resting postures Shavasana X+ Japan82 8 1 session Ss own controls Yoga (rest, AS, PR, M) X+ Italy36 23 1 session Talking, free breathing Yoga mantras, slow controlled breathing X+ India143 35 2 sessions Supine rest Yoga-based guided relaxation/M X+ India138 24 (10, 14) 1 session Naïve controls during rest SKY yoga by trained subjects X+ Uncontrolled Clinical Trials Healthy Adults India89 12 6 months Ss own controls Hatha yoga course X+ X+ X+ X− India147 20 10 full d Ss own controls 2 camps compared Vispanna Yoga; strict diet X+ India90 10 4 months Ss own controls Yoga (AS, PR, M) X+ X+ X+ X+ India94 73 3 months Ss own controls Yoga (PR, AS, SH) X− X− India116 17 3 months Ss own controls Yoga (AS, PR) X+ X+ India136 7 4 months Ss own controls Yoga (AS, PR, M) X+ India117 8 2 months Ss own controls SH + autogenic phrases with biofeedback X+ X+ India139 75 6 weeks Ss own controls Yoga PR X+ India103 8 30 days Ss own controls Santhi Kriya yoga X+ X− X+ India104 40 3 months Ss own controls Residential program: yoga (AS, PR, M) + education X+ X+ X+ India105 6 4 weeks Ss own controls Yoga (PR, AS) X+ X+ India111 8 2 weeks Ss own controls Sarvangasana X− X+ India140 26 2 full days Ss own controls Yoga + stress management X+ U.S.108 10 8 weeks Ss own controls Hatha yoga classes (PR, AS, SH) X− Adults with hypertension/CAD UK97 14 6 weeks Ss own controls Relaxation, M w/biofeedback X+ X− X+ India118 44 30 days Ss own controls Yoga + diet X+ India119 25 6 months Ss own controls Shavasana yoga X+ X+ India68 20 78 sessions Ss own controls Yoga (AS, PR, M, SH) + education X+ X+ X+ X+ X+ Adults with uncomplicated DM India91 52 6+ months Ss own controls Yoga (AS, SH) X+ X+ X+ India92 149 40 days Ss own controls Residential yoga + diet X+ X+ X+ India85 19 40 days Ss own controls Yoga (AS, PR, M) X+ X+ India86 24 40 days Ss own controls Supervised yoga AS, PR X+ Adults with SMI India157 37 3 months Ss own controls SKY yoga X− Canada158 69 8 weeks Ss own controls MBSR program (relaxation, yoga, M, daily practice) X−/+ Children & adults with asthma India151 9 7 days Ss own controls Residential yoga (AS, PR) + diet X+ Non-randomized controlled trials Healthy adults India112 28 (14, 14) 6 months Non-yogic exercise Yoga training (AS, PR) X− X+ India93 10 (4, 4, 2) 6 months Exercise; Ss own controls 2 yoga AS routines X+ X+ X+ X+ India153 20 (10, 10) 2.5 months Similar sedentary controls Yoga PR, AS X+ India88 180 (45, 45, 45, 45) 12 weeks Untrained controls PR: Ujjayi, Bhastrika, or combination X+ X+ Germany98 154 (118, 36)§ 3 months Non-participants matched for analyses Residential program: Kriya yoga + diet X+ X+ X+ X+ X+ India137 60 (30, 30) 10 weeks Sedentary controls Yogic PR training X+ India138 24 (10, 14) 5 months No yoga practice SKY Yoga X+ India113 16 (8, 8) 1 (Ph I) to 2 years (Ph II) Exercise only(N = 6, Phase I; N = 8, Phase II) Yoga PR + exercise (N = 6, Phase I; N = 8, Phase II) X− X− Adults with hypertension/CAD UK121 40 (20, 20) 3 months Usual care; also meet but rest on couch Yoga relaxation/M with biofeedback X+ X+ UK122 47 (27, 20) 9 weeks Usual care, also meet but rest on couch Training in yoga relaxation & M + home practice 2×/wk X+ X+ USA124 19 (14, 5) 6 months Usual care Buddhist M, PR, and relaxation training/practice X+ X+ India123† 60 (20, 10, 20, 10) 4 to 6 weeks Group II: 2 weeks SH, 2 weeks drugs, 2 weeks both (2 weeks between each) I, IV: 4 weeks SH III: 4 weeks SH + meds X+ X+ India109 14 (7, 7) 6 months (17 sessions) Usual care, met 1×/week Yoga, PR, relaxation (Phase I) + thermal biofeedback (Phase II) X− X+ X+ India120 20 (10, 10) 3 weeks Postural tilt table Postural yoga asanas X+ X+ India80 113 (71, 42)++ 12 months, (21 sessions) Usual care: Meds, diet, moderate exercise Yoga + diet, walking, stress management, meds X+ X+ X+ X+ Randomized controlled trials Healthy adults India125 18 (6, 6, 6) 12 weeks 20 minutes rest (controls) 20 min. TM, SH X+ X+ India106 40 (20, 20) 12 months No yoga training Yoga (AS, PR, PR, mudras, kriyas) X+ Japan126 90 (45, 45) 3 weekly trainings Jacobsen progressive muscle relaxation Hatha yoga classes (PR, AS, relaxation) X+ X+ UK114 26 (12, 14) 6 weeks Aerobic training (cycling) Yoga training (AS, PR, relaxation) X− X+ India127 54 (28, 26) 10 months No yoga until month 6; yoga month 6–10 Hatha yoga AS, PR, KR; mo. 1–10 X+ X+ USA87 46 (20, 9, 14) 12 months Usual care; diet, exercise, educ, supplements Yoga M, AS + walking, diet X+ X+ X+ India128 30 (15, 15) 3 months Flexibility, aerobic exercise Hatha yoga (AS, PR), Omkar meditation X+ X− Adults with Hypertension or CVD or at risk for CVD UK152 32 (16, 16) 6 weeks Usual care, anti-HT drugs Yoga relaxation, M training with BF+ X+ UK130 34 (17, 17) 6 weeks Placebo therapy (rest supine) Yoga relaxation, PR + biofeedback X+ X+ UK102 192 (99, 93) 8 weeks Usual care + lifestyle education PR, relaxation, M stress management + lifestyle education X+ X+ UK79 161 (86, 75) 8 weeks Usual care + lifestyle education (0, 8 month, 4 year followup) PR, M, relaxation + stress management, education X+/− X+ X+ UK129 99 (49, 54) 8 weeks Same medication/placebo schedule; no training Relaxation, M with biofeedback + education, home practice X+ X+ Holland101 35 (18, 17) 8 weeks, + Cont. 1 year Sit, relax 2×/days + support, non-specific counseling Yoga PR, AS, PMR, stress management X− X− X− India99 93 (52, 18) Camp + 14 weeks practice Standard care, diet control, exercise 4 d yoga camp + diet; yoga practice (AS, PR, SH, M) X+ X+ India78 42 (21, 21) 4 days training + 1 year Usual care, regular evaluations Yoga: (PR, AS, K, M) + diet, exercise, regular evaluations X+ X+ X+ India107 33 (11, 11, 11) 11 weeks Hypertension medication; no tx Yoga (M, PR, AS) training/practice X+ X+ X+ Thailand100 44 (22, 22) 4 months Usual care, including drug therapy Yoga AS, SH + imagery education, stress management, support groups X+ X+ India131 40 (10, 10, 10, 10) 8 days Conversation regarding neutral topics SH, Broota method, or Jacobsen PMR X+ Adults with Type II DM UK95 21 (11, 10) 12 weeks Usual care Yoga classes (PR, AS, SH) X+ X+ Adults/Children with epilepsy India146 32 (10, 10, 12) 6 months Sham yoga exercise, usual care Sahaja yoga M X+ X+ Healthy Children India141 28 (14, 14) 6 months Games (jog, races, rapid stretches+) Yoga AS X+ India115 24 (12, 12) 3 months No yoga practice/training PR exercises X− X+ * +, positive (beneficial) findings for 1 or more endpoints within a given category; −, no beneficial effects demonstrated.
† Including 10 normotensive adults (Group I).
‡Including a subset of patients with diabetes mellitus.
§ 36 to 72 analyzed in matched analyses.
Abbreviations and explanation of terms: AS, yoga asanas or postures; BF, biofeedback; BP, blood pressure; Clin, clinical; comp, composition; DM, diabetes mellitus; IR, insulin resistance (markers of); KR, kriyas or cleansing exercises; M, meditation; MBSR, mindfulness-based stress-reduction program; PMR, progressive muscle relaxation; PR, pranayama or yogic breathing exercises; SH, Shavasana or corpse pose, a traditional yoga relaxation pose; Symp/PS, markers of sympathetic/parasympathetic activation and cardiovagal function, including heart and respiratory rate, neuroendocrine markers, markers of cardiovascular reactivity to and recovery from stress, and indices of heart rate variability and baroreflex sensitivity; Santhi Kriya yoga: 3 stages, totaling 50 minutes: (1) 10 minutes PR while in standing and sitting postures; (2) 10 min chanting, meditation, and breathing exercises while in shavasana (corpse pose); and (3) 30 min of relaxation and concentrative meditation (dahara vidya); SKY, Sudharshan kriya yoga, developed by Pundit Ravishankar from Bangalore, India, uses specific yoga breathing exercises (Ujjayii, Bhastrika, cyclical breathing); sessions typically close with Yoga Nidra (tranquil state) in a supine posture.
- Table 4.
Summarized findings of studies (1970–2004) investigating the effects of yoga and yoga-based programs on insulin resistance, lipid profiles, and body size and composition, stratified by study design and intervention (yoga, including yoga-based meditation, alone vs. in combination with other interventions). Studies demonstrating beneficial effects are in bold type.
Findings, by Endpoint Study Design Cross-Sectional (Yoga Alone) Uncontrolled Clinical Trials (>2 sessions) Non-Randomized Controlled Clinical Trials (>2 Sessions) Randomized Clinical Trials (>2 sessions) Yoga Alone Multiple Interventions Yoga Alone Multiple Interventions Yoga Alone Multiple Interventions Markers of insulin resistance Fasting glucose Reduced [85, 86, 89, 90] [68, 92] [88, 93] [80] [95] No change [94]* [87] Post prandial glucose Reduced [85, 86, 89, 91] [92] No change [87] Reduced fasting insulin [87](NS) Reduced fasting glycated hemoglobin [85, 86] [95] Lipid profiles Total Cholesterol Reduced [96] [94](NS) [89, 90, 97]† [68] [88] [80, 98] [78, 79, 99] Increased [100] Unchanged [79]‡ [101] Triglycerides Reduced [96] [78, 99, 100] Increased [94] Increased high density lipoproteins [68] Low density lipoprotein (LDL) Reduced [80, 98] [78, 99] Increased [100] Anthropometric markers Reduced BMI [92] [98] [100] Reduced [89, 91, 103] [104] [93] [80] [106, 107] [78, 99] Unchanged [97]† [108] [109] [101] Body composition Reduced waist, hip circumference [106] Reduced skin fold thickness‡ [106] ↓ % body fat, ↑ % lean mass [105] No change (% body fat, fat mass) [108] * Sexes analyzed separately; trend toward reduced fasting glucose in men (N = 53, 0.5 < P < .1), despite low baseline fasting glucose levels (x = 64.4 ± 6.2).
† With biofeedback.
‡ In individuals at risk for CVD, cholesterol was lower at 0 and 8 months post-intervention, but not at 4 year follow-up
§Triceps, subscapular, thigh, calf, etc, skin folds.106
- Table 5.
Observed percent change with yoga in selected physiologic and anthropometric indices of CVD risk*
Findings, by Endpoint and Population Uncontrolled Clinical Trials (>2 sessions) Non-Randomized Controlled Clinical Trials (>2 sessions) Randomized Clinical Trials (>2 sessions) Markers of insulin resistance Reduced fasting glucose Healthy Adults 6.8% [90] 6.4–28.0% [88, 93] Adults with hypertension/CVD 5.4–6.4% [68] Adults with type II diabetes (DM II) 25.1–33.4% [85, 86, 92] 6.9% [95] Reduced postprandial glucose Adults with type II diabetes (DM II) 24.5–27.0% [85, 86, 91, 92] Reduced fasting Insulin Adults at risk for CVD 19.2% [87] Reduced fasting glycated hemoglobin Adults with type II diabetes (DM II) 13.3–27.3% [85, 86] 15.5% [95] Lipid profiles Reduced total cholesterol Healthy adults 9.3% [90] 8.0–8.2% [88] [98] Adults with hypertension/CVD+ or DM II 5.8–10.1% [68, 97] 25.2% [80] 14.8–21% [78, 99] Adults with other chronic disorders Reduced triglycerides Adults with hypertension/CVD+ or DM II 22.0–28.5% [78, 99, 100] Reduced low density lipoprotein (LDL) Healthy adults 12.8% [98] Adults with hypertension/CVD+ or DM II 26.0% [80] 19.1–23.3% [78, 99] Anthropometric markers Reduced body weight Healthy adults 1.5–9.1% [103, 104] 10.1% [106] Adults with hypertension/CVD+ or DM II 5.1–13.6% [78, 99, 107] Blood pressure Reduced diastolic BP Healthy adults 7.7–8.8% [90, 104, 116] 7.3–15.9% [93 98] 4.9–12.4% [125, 127, 128] Adults with or at risk for CVD 8.5–16.7% [68, 97, 117–119] 12.7–17.5% [80, 120–123] 8.2–24.2% [79, 87, 107, 129–131] Reduced systolic BP Healthy adults 2.6–7.3% [90, 104, 116] 18% [98] 6.8–9.3% [125, 127, 128] Adults with or at risk for CVD 7.1–17.0% [68, 97, 117–119] 11.1–20.8% [80, 120–123] 4.4–21.3% [79, 87, 107, 129–131] Reduced baseline respiratory rate Healthy adults 3.8–14.4% [103, 104, 116, 139, 140] Healthy children/adolescents 5.3% [141] Adults with hypertension 60.3% [123] Reduced baseline heart rate Healthy adults 4.3–38.8% [90, 104, 111, 116] 4.3–8.2% [93, 98] 5.0–11.6% [114, 115, 125–127] Healthy children/adolescents 17.0–30.2% [115, 141] Adults with hypertension/CVD 9.5–23.5% [120, 123] 8.4% [107] Adults with other chronic disorders 14.9% [151] * Including studies reporting improvement in these indices; studies not reporting point estimates or presenting sufficient data to allow reliable calculation of point estimates were excluded; weighted averages were calculated for studies presenting only stratified data (e.g., by sex).
CVD, cardiovascular disease.
- Table 6.
Summarized Findings of Studies (1970–2004) Investigating the Effects of Yoga and Yoga-Based Programs on Blood Pressure, Stratified by Study Design and Intervention (Studies Reporting Beneficial Effects Are in Bold)
Findings, by Endpoint Study Design Cross-Sectional (Yoga Alone) 1 to 2 Sessions (Yoga Alone) Uncontrolled Clinical Trials (>2 sessions) Non-Randomized Controlled Clinical Trials (>2 sessions) Randomized Controlled Trials (>2 sessions) Yoga Alone Multiple Interventions Yoga Alone Multiple Interventions Yoga Alone Multiple Interventions Blood Pressure Reduced systolic and/or diastolic pressure [96] [97, 117]* [90, 116, 119] [68, 104, 118] [121, 122]* [93, 109, 120] [123]‡ [124] [98]† [80] [130]* [107, 125–128, 131] [79, 87, 102, 129] No change in systolic or diastolic pressure [110] [103, 111] [112] [113]‖ [114, 115] [101] Systolic blood pressure Reduced [97, 117]* [90, 116, 119] [68, 104, 118] [121, 122]* [93, 109, 120] [123]‡ [80, 98] [130]* [107, 125, 127, 128, 131] [87]¶ [79, 129] Unchanged [96] [110] [103, 111] [112] [113]‖ [114] [101] Diastolic blood pressure Reduced [96] [97, 117]* [90, 116, 119] [68, 104, 118] [109, 121, 122]* [123]‡ [120] [80, 98] [130]* [107, 125, 127, 128, 131] [79, 87, 102, 129] Unchanged [103, 111] [113]‖ [93, 112] [114] [101] Reduced mean blood pressure [124] [126, 128] * With biofeedback.
† Only among individuals with high initial SBP.
‡ In both hypertensive and normotensive subjects.
§At 4 year follow up of individuals at risk for CVD.
‖ Yoga PR in addition to exercise vs exercise alone.
¶ P = .07 to .08.87
Abbreviation: PR, pranayama.
- Table 7.
Cross-Sectional Studies and Clinical Trials Investigating the Effects of Yoga and Yoga-Based Programs on Coagulation Profiles and Indices of Oxidative Stress, Stratified by Study Design and Intervention: Summarized Findings (Studies Reporting Beneficial Effects Are in Bold)
Findings, by Endpoint Study Design Cross-Sectional (Yoga Alone) 1 to 2 Sessions (Yoga Alone) Uncontrolled Clinical Trials (>2 sessions) Non-Randomized Controlled Clinical Trials (>2 sessions) Randomized Controlled Trials (>2 sessions) Yoga Alone Multiple Interventions Yoga Alone Multiple Interventions Yoga Alone Multiple Interventions Coagulation/Fibrinolytic Profiles Reduced fibrinogen [136] [98] Increased fibrinolytic activity [136] Prolonged platelet aggregation time [136] (NS) Prolonged activated partial thromboplastin time [136] (NS) Markers of Oxidative stress Increased Glutathione [138]* [138] [100] Increased Vitamins E, C [100] Increased total antioxidants [100] Super oxide dismutase (SOD) Increased [138] [138] No change [137] Catalase Increased [138] No change [138] Reduced free radicals [137] Malonyldialdehyde (MDA) Reduced [85] [68] [137] No change [100] * P < .1; Yoga PR in addition to exercise vs exercise alone.
Abbreviations: NS, P > .05 (N = 7 subjects).
- Table 8.
Cross-Sectional Studies and Clinical Trials Investigating the Effects of Yoga and Yoga-Based Programs on Markers of Sympathetic Activation and Reactivity, Cardiovagal Function, and Cardiovascular Recovery from Stress, Stratified by Study Design and Intervention: Summarized Findings (Studies Reporting Beneficial Effects Are in Bold)
Findings, by Endpoint Study Design Cross-Sectional (Yoga Alone) 1 to 2 Sessions (Yoga Alone) Uncontrolled Clinical Trials (>2 Sessions) Non-Randomized Controlled Clinical Trials (>2 Sessions) Randomized Controlled Trials (>2 Sessions) Yoga Alone Multiple Interventions Yoga Alone Multiple Interventions Yoga Alone Multiple Interventions Respiratory and Heart Rate Respiratory rate Reduced [103, 116, 139] [104, 140] [123]* [141] Unchanged [143] [128] Heart rate (HR) Reduced baseline [96] [145] [117]† [90, 111, 116] [104, 151] [123]* [93] [98, 145] [107, 114, 115, 125–127, 141] Reduced during/after yogic exercise [142, 143] Unchanged [103] [140] [113] [128]‡ Neuroendocrine markers Epinephrine/norepinephrine Increased plasma [147] [93] Reduced urinary [68] [120] [98] Reduced urinary VMA [68] [146] Cortisol Reduced [82] [147] [158]§ No change [110] [157] Increased excretion [89]‖ [98] Increased basal skin resistance/reduced skin conductance [143, 145] [117]† [68, 104] [125, 146] Reduced renin activity [120, 124] [102] ↓ Cardiovascular reactivity to stress Reduced DBP response to HGT [151] Reduced DBP, SBP response to CPT [152]¶ Reduced DBP rise with exercise [152]¶ Reduced HR rise with exercise [105] [112, 153] [127] ↓ Cardiovascular recovery time after stress Faster HR return to baseline after exercise [144] [153] Faster DBP, SBP return to baseline after Exercise [152]¶ Cold pressor test (CPT) [152]¶ Increased Heart rate variability Increased (power of mid frequency/high frequency (HF) component) [36, 143] [140]† [114] Increased (HF component of α index) [114] Reduced (power of low frequency component) [143] [140]† Increased RRIV [115] Other measures of ↑ baroreflex sensitivity Reduced HR, blood pressure response to head-up/head-down tilt [111] [120] * In both hypertensive and normotensive subjects.
† Only in subjects with Occupational Stress Index scores greater than the median.
¶ With biofeedback.
‖ 17-hydroxy-corticosteroid.
§ Only in subjects with initial cortisol levels above the median; cortisol levels in those below the median did not change.
‡ Yoga PR in addition to exercise vs. exercise alone.
Abbreviations: CPT, cold pressor test; DBP, diastolic blood pressure; HGT, hand grip test; HR, heart rate; RRIV, R-R (heart rate) interval variation; SBP, systolic blood pressure; VMA, vanillylmandelic acid, a metabolite of norepinephrine.
- Table 9.
Clinical Trials (>2 Sessions) Investigating the Effects of Yoga and Yoga-Based Programs on Clinical Outcomes, Stratified by Study Design and Intervention (Yoga, Including Yoga-Based Meditation Alone vs. in Combination with Other Interventions) (Studies Reporting Beneficial Effects Are in Bold)
Findings, by Endpoint Study Design Uncontrolled Clinical Trials Non-Randomized Controlled Trials Randomized Controlled Trials Yoga Alone Multiple Interventions Yoga Alone Multiple Interventions Yoga Alone Multiple Interventions Clinical endpoints Reduced need for medication Hypertension/CAD [119] [68] [109, 121, 122]* [80] [130]* [79]† Diabetes [91] [92] [68] [95] Reduced revascularization procedures related complications† [78] Number of subjects on treatment for: Hypertension (no difference)† [79]† Other CVD complications (reduced)† [79]† Reduced ECG evidence of ischemia† [79]† Reduction in anginal episodes [79]† [78] Reduced carotid intimal media thickness [87] Reduced progression of CAD [80] [78] Increased regression of CAD [80] [78] Reduced number of serious coronary events [129](NS)[79]† Reduced number of hospitalizations [80] * With biofeedback.
† At 4 year follow up of individuals at risk for CVD; no difference in number of Ss currently on treatment for hypertension.
Abbreviations: CAD, coronary artery disease; CVD, cardiovascular disease.
