Addressing and Dismantling the Legacy of Race and Racism in Academic Medicine: A Socioecological Framework

References

1. 1.↵
   Syndemics: health in context. Lancet 2017;Mar 4389:881.

   OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
2. 2.↵
   Race Based Medicine. AAFP. Available at: https://www.aafp.org/about/policies/all/racebased-medicine.html. July 2020.
3. 3.↵
   Racial Essentialism in Medicine D-350.981. American Medical Association. Available at: https://policysearch.ama-assn.org/policyfinder/detail/algorithm?uri=%2FAMADoc%2Fdirectives.xml-D-350.981.xml. 2020. Accessed May 5, 2022.
4. 4.↵
   1. Wright JL,
   2. Davis WS,
   3. Joseph MM,
   4. et al

   . Eliminating race-based medicine. Pediatrics. the AAP Board Committee on Equity2022;150.
5. 5.↵
   1. Vyas DA,
   2. Eisenstein LG,
   3. Jones DS

   . Hidden in plain sight — reconsidering the use of race correction in clinical algorithms. N Engl J Med 2020;383:874–82.

   OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
6. 6.↵
   1. Ioannidis JPA,
   2. Powe NR,
   3. Yancy C

   . Recalibrating the Use of Race in Medical Research. JAMA 2021;325:623–4.

   OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
7. 7.↵
   1. Wolf SH,
   2. Aron LY,
   3. Dubay L,
   4. Simon SM,
   5. Zimmerman E,
   6. Luk K

   . How are income and wealth linked to health and longevity. Urban Institute and Virginia Commonwealth University. Available at: https://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/49116/2000178-How-are-Income-and-Wealth-Linked-to-Health-and-Longevity.pdf. 2015.
8. 8.↵
   1. Chadha N,
   2. Kane M,
   3. Lim B,
   4. Rowland B

   . Towards the Abolition of Biological Race in Medicine: Transforming Clinical Education, Research and Practice. Institute for health and Justice in Medicine. Available at: https://www.instituteforhealingandjustice.org/executivesummary. Accessed October 30, 2021.
9. 9.↵
   Institute for Health and Justice in Medicine. Section 1: Racism, no Race, Causes health Disparities. Available at: https://www.instituteforhealingandjustice.org/section-1-racism-not-race-causes-health-disparities#_ftn1.
10. 10.↵
    1. Geronimus AT,
    2. Hicken M,
    3. Keene D,
    4. Bound J

    . “Weathering” and age patterns of allostatic load scores among blacks and whites in the United States. Am J Public Health 2006;96:826–33.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
11. 11.↵
    1. Simons RL,
    2. Lei MK,
    3. Beach SR,
    4. et al

    . Economic hardship and biological weathering: The epigenetics of aging in a U.S. sample of black women. Soc Sci Med 2016;150:192–200.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
12. 12.↵
    1. Williams DR,
    2. Mohammed SA

    . Discrimination and racial disparities in health: evidence and needed research. J Behav Med 2009;Feb32:20–47.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
13. 13.↵
    1. Korous KM,
    2. Causadias JM,
    3. Casper DM

    . Racial discrimination and cortisol output: A meta-analysis. Soc Sci Med 2017;Nov193:90–100.

    OpenUrlPubMed
14. 14.↵
    1. Mays VM,
    2. Cochran SD,
    3. Barnes NW

    . Race, race-based discrimination, and health outcomes among African Americans. Annu Rev Psychol 2007;58:201–25.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
15. 15.↵
    1. Brondolo E,
    2. Love EE,
    3. Pencille M,
    4. Schoenthaler A,
    5. Ogedegbe G

    . Racism and hypertension: a review of the empirical evidence and implications for clinical practice. Am J Hypertens 2011 May;24:518–29.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
16. 16.↵
    1. Bower KM,
    2. Geller RJ,
    3. Perrin NA,
    4. Alhusen J

    . Experiences of Racism and Preterm Birth: Findings from a Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System, 2004 through 2012. Womens Health Issues 2018;Nov-Dec28:495–501.

    OpenUrl
17. 17.↵
    1. Slaughter-Acey JC,
    2. Talley LM,
    3. Stevenson HC,
    4. Misra DP

    . Personal Versus Group Experiences of Racism and Risk of Delivering a Small-for-Gestational Age Infant in African American Women: A Life Course Perspective. J Urban Health 2019; Apr96:181–92.

    OpenUrlPubMed
18. 18.↵
    ASCVD risk estimator. American College of Cardiology and American Heart Association. Available at: https://tools.acc.org/ldl/ascvd_risk_estimator/index.html#!/calulate/estimator/patient.
19. 19.↵
    Association of American Medical Colleges. Addressing and Eliminating Racism at the AAMC and Beyond. Available at: https://www.aamc.org/addressing-and-eliminating-racism-aamc-and-beyond. February 23, 2001.
20. 20.↵
    Center for Disease Control and Prevention. The Social-Ecological Model: A Framework for Prevention. Page last reviewed January 18, 2022. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/about/social-ecologicalmodel.html.
21. 21.↵
    1. Rittel HW,
    2. Webber MM

    . Dilemmas in a general theory of planning. Policy Sci 1973;4:155–69.

    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
22. 22.
    1. Wilkins CH,
    2. Williams M,
    3. Kaur K,
    4. DeBaun MR

    . Academic Medicine's Journey Toward Racial Equity Must Be Grounded in History: Recommendations for Becoming an Antiracist Academic Medical Center. Acad Med 2021;96:1507–12.

    OpenUrl
23. 23.
    1. Edwards ML

    . Race, policing, and history—Remembering the Freedom House Ambulance Service. N Engl J Med 2021;384:1386–9.

    OpenUrl
24. 24.
    1. Bailey ZD,
    2. Feldman JM,
    3. Bassett MT

    . How structural racism works—Racist policies as a root cause of U.S. racial health inequities. N Engl J Med 2021;384:768–73.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
25. 25.
    1. Hall WJ,
    2. Chapman MV,
    3. Lee KM,
    4. et al

    . Implicit racial/ethnic bias among health care professionals and its influence on health care outcomes: A systematic review. Am J Public Health 2015;105:e60–e76.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
26. 26.
    1. Flanagin A,
    2. Frey T,
    3. Christiansen SL

    , AMA Manual of Style Committee. Updated guidance on the reporting of race and ethnicity in medical and science journals. JAMA 2021;326:621–7.

    OpenUrl
27. 27.
    1. Downey MM,
    2. Manchikanti Gomez A

    . Structural competency and reproductive health. AMA J Ethics 2018;20:211–23.

    OpenUrlPubMed
28. 28.
    1. Argueza BR,
    2. Saenz SR,
    3. McBride D

    . From Diversity and Inclusion to Antiracism in Medical Training Institutions. Acad Med 2021;96:798–801.

    OpenUrl
29. 29.
    1. Guh J,
    2. Krinsky L,
    3. White-Davis T,
    4. Sethi T,
    5. Hayon R,
    6. Edgoose J

    . Teaching racial affinity caucusing as a tool to learn about racial health inequity through an experiential workshop. Fam Med 2020;52:656–60. https://doi.org/10.22454/FamMed.2020.596649.

    OpenUrl
30. 30.
    1. Cerdena JP,
    2. Plaisime MV,
    3. Tsai J

    . From race-based to race-conscious medicine: How anti-racist uprisings call us to act. Lancet 2020;396:1125–8.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
31. 31.
    1. Boyd RW,
    2. Lindo EG,
    3. Weeks LD,
    4. McLemore MR

    . On racism: A new standard for publishing on racial health inequities. Health Affairs blog. July 2, 2020. Available at: https://www.healthaffairs.org/do/10.1377/hblog20200630.939347/full/.
32. 32.
    1. Burgess DJ,
    2. Warren J,
    3. Phelan S,
    4. Dovidio J,
    5. van Ryn M

    . Stereotype threat and health disparities: What medical educators and future physicians need to know. J Gen Intern Med 2010;25 Suppl 2:S169–S177.

    OpenUrl
33. 33.
    1. Amutah C,
    2. Greenidge K,
    3. Mante A,
    4. et al

    . Misrepresenting race — The role of medical schools in propagating physician bias. N Engl J Med 2021;384:872–8.

    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
34. 34.
    1. Rourke J

    . Social accountability: A framework for medical schools to improve the health of the populations they serve., Acad Med 2018;93:1120–4.

    OpenUrl
35. 35.
    1. Goodman CW,
    2. Brett AS

    . Race and pharmacogenomics—personalized medicine or misguided practice? JAMA 2021;325:625–6.

    OpenUrl
36. 36.
    1. Douglas MD,
    2. Josiah Willock R,
    3. Respress E,
    4. et al

    . Applying a health equity lens to evaluate and inform policy. Ethn Dis 2019;29:329–42.

    OpenUrlPubMed
37. 37.
    1. Edgoose J

    . Application of the Equity and Empowerment Lens for facilitators and learners. (video) In Health Equity Curricular Toolkit. 2018. Parkway Leawood, KS: Health Equity Team for Family Medicine for America’s Health. 2018. Available at: https://www.aafp.org/family-physician/patient-care/the-everyone-project/health-equity-tools.html.
38. 38.
    Duke University School of Medicine Advocacy Scholarship. Available at: https://medschool.duke.edu/sites/medschool.duke.edu/files/field/attachments/advocacy_scholarship_framework.pdf.
39. 39.
    The Faculty of Medicine Harvard University Significant Supporting Activity: Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI). Updated August 2021. Available at: https://fa.hms.harvard.edu/files/hmsofa/files/ssa_dei.aug2021.pdf.
40. 40.
    1. Marrast LM,
    2. Zallman L,
    3. Woolhandler S,
    4. Bor DH,
    5. McCormick D

    . Minority physicians' role in the care of underserved patients: diversifying the physician workforce may be key in addressing health disparities. JAMA Intern Med 2014;174:289–91.

    OpenUrl
41. 41.
    1. Garcia AN,
    2. Kuo T,
    3. Arangua L,
    4. Pérez-Stable EJ

    . Factors associated with medical school graduates' intention to work with underserved populations: policy implications for advancing workforce diversity. Acad Med 2018;93:82–9.

    OpenUrl
42. 42.
    1. Morris DB,
    2. Gruppuso PA,
    3. McGee HA,
    4. Murillo A,
    5. Grover A,
    6. Adashi EY

    . Diversity of the natonal medical student body—four decades of inequities. N Engl J Med 2021;384:1661–8.

    OpenUrlCrossRef
43. 43.
    1. Amaechi O,
    2. Foster KE,
    3. Tumin D,
    4. Campbell KM

    . Addressing the gate blocking of minority faculty. J Natl Med Assoc 2021;113:517–21.

    OpenUrl
44. 44.
    Stereotype threat. Center for Teaching and Learning University of Colorado Boulder. Available at: https://www.colorado.edu/center/teaching-learning/inclusivity/stereotype-threat.