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Characteristic % Sociodemographic Age, y (mean ± SD) 53.9 ± 13.0 Sex (women) 74.1 Race (non-White) 25.0 Ethnicity (Hispanic) 11.7 Education (college degree or higher) 38.4 Ever had work loss ≥ 1 month due to LBP 42.6 Ever received disability or workers' compensation benefits due to LBP 23.1 Ever involved in a legal claim for LBP 11.6 Comorbidity history Herniated disc 34.7 Sciatica 40.9 Osteoarthritis 39.0 Hypertension 40.5 Diabetes mellitus 19.3 Asthma 27.5 Depression 49.8 Clinical Current smoker 14.2 Current widespread pain 24.2 Ever had LBP surgery 18.8 Body mass index, kg/m2 (mean ± SD) 32.5 ± 8.2 Pain catastrophizing (PCS) (mean ± SD)† 19.0 ± 13.8 Pain self-efficacy (PSEQ) (mean ± SD)† 34.5 ± 15.0 LBP intensity, NRS (mean ± SD) 5.8 ± 2.2 Back-related disability, RMDQ (mean ± SD) 13.7 ± 6.7 Quality of life (PROMIS-29)†‡ Physical function (mean ± SD) 38.2 ± 6.8 Anxiety (mean ± SD) 54.1 ± 10.5 Depression (mean ± SD) 52.3 ± 9.6 Low energy/fatigue (mean ± SD) 57.9 ± 10.4 Sleep disturbance (mean ± SD) 56.5 ± 8.5 Participation in social roles and activities (mean ± SD) 44.0 ± 8.8 Pain interference with activities (mean ± SD) 62.8 ± 7.4 ↵* Table entries are percentages unless otherwise indicated. LBP denotes low back pain; NRS, numerical rating scale; PCS, Pain Catastrophizing Scale; PROMIS-29, Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System with 29 items; PSEQ, Pain Self-Efficacy Questionnaire; RMDQ, Roland-Morris Disability Questionnaire.
†Data were collected at the time of registry enrollment.
‡Scale scores are normed to the United States general population, with mean ± SD = 50 ± 10. Higher scores represent worse quality of life on all scales except physical function and participation in social roles and activities.
SD, standard deviation.
- Table 2.
Utilization of Noninvasive Treatments for Chronic Low Back Pain Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic (n = 528)*
Pre-COVID-19 During COVID-19 Pandemic Pandemic Treatment (%) (%) OR (95% CI) P Value Nonpharmacological Exercise therapy 18.0 9.8 0.42 (0.27, 0.65) <.001 Yoga 9.7 10.2 1.13 (0.63, 2.04) .78 Massage therapy 16.3 10.6 0.42 (0.25, 0.71) <.001 Spinal manipulation 18.0 12.3 0.30 (0.15, 0.57) <.001 Acupuncture 2.3 1.9 0.78 (0.25, 2.35) .80 Cognitive behavioral therapy 5.7 3.6 0.52 (0.24, 1.09) .09 Pharmacological Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs 61.2 58.0 0.70 (0.46, 1.07) .10 Opioids 29.9 30.1 1.03 (0.60, 1.79) .99 ↵* The utilization of each treatment during the COVID-19 pandemic relative to the pre-COVID-19 pandemic period was measured by the odds ratio (OR), based on McNemar’s test.
OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval.
- Table 3.
Demographic Predictors of the Utilization of Noninvasive Treatments for Chronic Low Back Pain During the COVID-19 Pandemic (n = 513)*
Exercise Therapy Yoga Massage Therapy Spinal Manipulation OR 95% CI P Value OR 95% CI P Value OR 95% CI P Value OR 95% CI P Value Age Increasing decades 0.85 (0.68, 1.06) .15 0.68 (0.55, 0.85) .001 0.76 (0.61, 0.94) .01 0.72 (0.59, 0.88) .001 Sex Men 1 1 1 1 Women 0.63 (0.34, 1.18) .15 0.91 (0.46, 1.80) .80 0.93 (0.48, 1.78) .82 1.05 (0.56, 1.98) .87 Race White 1 1 1 1 African American 0.87 (0.43, 1.78) .71 0.40 (0.16, 0.97) .04 0.60 (0.22, 1.59) .34 0.37 (0.16, 0.85) .02 Ethnicity Non-Hispanic 1 1 1 1 Hispanic 0.88 (0.35, 2.22) .79 0.71 (0.28, 1.79) .47 0.60 (0.22, 1.59) .30 0.95 (0.43, 2.08) .89 Acupuncture CBT NSAIDs Opioids OR 95% CI P Value OR 95% CI P Value OR 95% CI P Value OR 95% CI P Value Age Increasing decades 0.46 (0.28, 0.77) .003 0.58 (0.41, 0.83) .003 0.98 (0.85, 1.12) 0.77 1.23 (1.05, 1.44) .009 Sex Men 1 1 1 1 Women 0.63 (0.15, 2.60) .53 0.95 (0.33, 2.75) .92 1.08 (0.72, 1.62) 0.71 1.01 (0.65, 1.56) .98 Race* White 1 1 1 1 African American 0.37 (0.05, 3.02) .35 1.38 (0.47, 4.04) .56 0.80 (0.53, 1.22) 0.30 1.53 (0.99, 2.39) .06 Ethnicity Non-Hispanic 1 1 1 1 Hispanic 0.46 (0.05, 3.96) .48 1.66 (0.50, 5.45) 0.41 1.74 (0.96, 3.15) 0.07 0.91 (0.48, 1.72) .77 *CBT denotes cognitive behavioral therapy; NSAID, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug; CI, confidence interval; OR, odds ratio. Fifteen participants in other racial categories were excluded from the analyses to avoid unstable estimates for these categories because of small cell counts.
- Table 4.
Demographic Predictors of Low Back Pain Intensity and Back-Related Disability During the COVID-19 Pandemic (n = 513)*
Low Back Pain Intensity (Numerical Rating Scale Score) Back-Related Disability (Roland-Morris Disability Score) Model 1 (unadjusted) Characteristic β SE t P Value β SE t P Value Age (increasing decades) 0.148 0.416 1.98 .049 0.201 0.231 0.87 .39 Sex (women) −0.322 0.222 −1.45 .15 0.986 0.686 1.44 .15 Race (African American) 1.619 0.220 7.37 <.001 4.135 0.690 5.99 <.001 Ethnicity (Hispanic) 0.043 0.304 0.14 .89 −1.065 0.938 −1.14 .26 Model 2 (partially adjusted) Characteristic β SE t P Value β SE t P Value Age (increasing decades) 0.161 0.072 2.24 .03 0.209 0.226 0.92 .36 Sex (women) −0.127 0.212 −0.60 .55 1.440 0.668 2.16 .03 Race (African American) 1.636 0.222 7.38 <.001 4.278 0.697 6.14 <.001 Ethnicity (Hispanic) 0.350 0.293 1.20 .23 −0.246 0.923 −0.27 .79 Model 3 (fully adjusted) Characteristic β SE t P Value β SE t P Value Age (increasing decades) 0.124 0.072 1.73 .08 0.007 0.217 0.03 .98 Sex (women) −0.130 0.205 −0.63 .53 1.427 0.621 2.30 .02 Race (African American) 1.543 0.217 7.12 <.001 3.665 0.656 5.59 <.001 Ethnicity (Hispanic) 0.312 0.285 1.09 .27 −0.415 0.861 −0.48 .63 ↵* Table entries are for the demographic characteristics in the parentheses. Positive β coefficients represent greater low back pain intensity or back-related disability. Predictors were analyzed using linear regression. Model 1 involved simple linear regression. Model 2 controlled for each of the other demographic characteristics in the table. Model 3 controlled for each of the other demographic characteristics and current utilization of exercise therapy, yoga, massage therapy, spinal manipulation, acupuncture, cognitive behavioral therapy, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, and opioids. Fifteen participants in other racial categories were excluded from the analyses to avoid unstable estimates for these categories because of small cell counts.
SE, standard error; CI, confidence interval.
