Elsevier

Safety Science

Volume 39, Issue 3, December 2001, Pages 189-204
Safety Science

Situational awareness and safety

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0925-7535(01)00010-8Get rights and content

Abstract

This paper considers the applicability of situation awareness concepts to safety in the control of complex systems. Much of the research to date has been conducted in aviation, which has obvious safety implications. It is argued that the concepts could be extended to other safety critical domains. The paper presents three theories of situational awareness: the three-level model, the interactive sub-systems approach, and the perceptual cycle. The difference between these theories is the extent to which they emphasise process or product as indicative of situational awareness. Some data from other studies are discussed to consider the negative effects of losing situational awareness, as this has serious safety implications. Finally, the application of situational awareness to system design, and training are presented.

Section snippets

History of the Concept

According to Gilson (1995), the concept of situational awareness was identified during World War I by Oswald Boelke who realised ‘the importance of gaining an awareness of the enemy before the enemy gained a similar awareness, and devised methods for accomplishing this.' This idea of separation between the human operators understanding of system status and actual system status is at the crux of the definition of situational awareness (Woods, 1988). The idea did not receive much attention in the

Definitions of situational awareness

The terms situation(al) awareness, situation(al) assessment and situation(al) measurement are rife in the literature. For simplicities sake, the term ‘situational' has been adopted in this paper as the terms appear interchangeable. Researchers and practitioners in this field have attempted to clear up the ambiguities in the definition of situational awareness (often abbreviated to SA in the literature). At a very simple level, situational awareness is an appropriate awareness of a situation (

Theories of situational awareness

The theories of situational awareness are strongly associated with the definitions that have given rise to the concept and the methods of assessing situational awareness in the world. Three main theoretical approaches dominate: the information processing approach, the activity approach, and the ecological approach. The information processing approach has been best represented by Endsley's (1995) theoretical three-level model of situational awareness. This presents an unfolding of situational

Loss of situational awareness

As already introduced, it is suggested that loss of situational awareness is correlated with poor system performance. Endsley and colleagues, in particular, have gone on to consider the implication of losing situational awareness. They suggest that people who have lost situational awareness may be slower to detect problems with the system they are controlling as well as requiring additional time to diagnose problems and conduct remedial activities when they are finally detected (Endsley and

Improving situational awareness

Endsley (1995) argues that system design should try to support and enhance situational awareness. She proposed a set of interface design criteria for enhancing situational awareness:

  • 1.

    Reduce the requirement for people to make calculations.

  • 2.

    Present data in a manner that makes level 2 SA (understanding) and level 3 SA (prediction) easier.

  • 3.

    Organise information in a manner that is consistent with the persons goals.

  • 4.

    Indicators of the current mode or status of the system can help the cue the appropriate

Conclusions

The initial review of the literature began with some critique of the usefulness of the concept of situational awareness. The response from flight crews, air traffic controllers and the National Transportation Safety Board seems to suggest that the ideas have proved to be of practical worth, whilst academic research still debates the definition and underlying theory. The theoretical debate hinges on whether situational awareness is a process or a product. The three-level model and interactive

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