Skip to main content
Log in

Vitamin D and risk of future hypertension: meta-analysis of 283,537 participants

  • META-ANALYSIS
  • Published:
European Journal of Epidemiology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The evidence on the association between baseline vitamin D status and risk of incident hypertension in general populations is limited and has not been reliably quantified. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of published prospective studies evaluating the associations of baseline vitamin D status (circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] levels and dietary vitamin D intake) with risk of hypertension. Eligible studies were identified in a literature search of MEDLINE, EMBASE, and Web of Science up to November 2012. Pooled relative risks (RRs) with 95 % confidence intervals were calculated using random effects models. Generalized least-squares trend estimation was used to assess dose–response relationships. Of the 2,432 articles reviewed for eligibility, eight unique prospective cohorts with aggregate data on 283,537 non-overlapping participants and 55,816 incident hypertension cases were included. The RRs (95 % CIs) for hypertension in a comparison of extreme thirds of baseline levels of vitamin D were 0.70 (0.58, 0.86) for seven studies that measured blood 25(OH) D levels and 1.00 (0.95, 1.05) for four studies that assessed dietary vitamin D intake. The pooled RR of incident hypertension per 10 ng/mL increment in baseline 25(OH)D levels was 0.88 (0.81, 0.97) in dose–response analysis. Evidence was lacking of heterogeneity among studies that measured blood 25(OH) D levels and those that assessed dietary vitamin D status. Studies are needed to determine whether the association of vitamin D with hypertension represents a causal association and also to determine whether vitamin D therapy may be beneficial in the prevention or the treatment of hypertension.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. DeLuca HF. Overview of general physiologic features and functions of vitamin D. Am J Clini Nutr. 2004;80(6 Suppl):1689S–96S.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Wallis DE, Penckofer S, Sizemore GW. The “sunshine deficit” and cardiovascular disease. Circulation. 2008;118(14):1476–85.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Khan H, Kunutsor S, Franco OH, Chowdhury R. Vitamin D. Type 2 diabetes and other metabolic outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies. Proc Nutr Soc. 2013;72(1):89–97. doi:10.1017/S0029665112002765.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Giovannucci E, Liu Y, Hollis BW, Rimm EB. 25-hydroxyvitamin D and risk of myocardial infarction in men: a prospective study. Arch Intern Med. 2008;168(11):1174–80. doi:10.1001/archinte.168.11.1174.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Wolf M, Shah A, Gutierrez O, Ankers E, Monroy M, Tamez H, et al. Vitamin D levels and early mortality among incident hemodialysis patients. Kidney Int. 2007;72(8):1004–13.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Dobnig H, Pilz S, Scharnagl H, Renner W, Seelhorst U, Wellnitz B, et al. Independent association of low serum 25-hydroxyvitamin d and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin d levels with all-cause and cardiovascular mortality. Arch Intern Med. 2008;168(12):1340–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Martins D, Wolf M, Pan D, Zadshir A, Tareen N, Thadhani R, et al. Prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors and the serum levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D in the United States: data from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Arch Intern Med. 2007;167(11):1159–65. doi:10.1001/archinte.167.11.1159.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Scragg R, Sowers M, Bell C. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D, ethnicity, and blood pressure in the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Am J Hypertens. 2007;20(7):713–9. doi:10.1016/j.amjhyper.2007.01.017.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Judd SE, Nanes MS, Ziegler TR, Wilson PW, Tangpricha V. Optimal vitamin D status attenuates the age-associated increase in systolic blood pressure in white Americans: results from the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008;87(1):136–41.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Forman JP, Curhan GC, Taylor EN. Plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and risk of incident hypertension among young women. Hypertension. 2008;52(5):828–32. doi:10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.108.117630.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Forman JP, Giovannucci E, Holmes MD, Bischoff-Ferrari HA, Tworoger SS, Willett WC, et al. Plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and risk of incident hypertension. Hypertension. 2007;49(5):1063–9. doi:10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.107.087288.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Griffin FC, Gadegbeku CA, Sowers MR. Vitamin D and subsequent systolic hypertension among women. Am J Hypertens. 2011;24(3):316–21. doi:10.1038/ajh.2010.226.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Margolis KL, Martin LW, Ray RM, Kerby TJ, Allison MA, Curb JD, et al. A prospective study of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels, blood pressure, and incident hypertension in postmenopausal women. Am J Epidemiol. 2012;175(1):22–32. doi:10.1093/aje/kwr274.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Pittas AG, Chung M, Trikalinos T, Mitri J, Brendel M, Patel K, et al. Systematic review: vitamin D and cardiometabolic outcomes. Ann Intern Med. 2010;152(5):307–14. doi:10.1059/0003-4819-152-5-201003020-00009.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Burgaz A, Orsini N, Larsson SC, Wolk A. Blood 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration and hypertension: a meta-analysis. J Hypertens. 2011;29(4):636–45. doi:10.1097/HJH.0b013e32834320f9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, Altman DG. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. PLoS Med. 2009;6(7):e1000097. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1000097.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Stroup DF, Berlin JA, Morton SC, Olkin I, Williamson GD, Rennie D, et al. Meta-analysis of Observational Studies in Epidemiology. J Am Med Assoc. 2000;283(15):2008–12. doi:10.1001/jama.283.15.2008.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Wells GA, Shea B, O’Connell D, Peterson J, Welch V, Losos M et al. The Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS) for assessing the quality of nonrandomised studies in meta-analyses. 2011. http://www.ohri.ca/programs/clinical_epidemiology/oxford.asp Accessed 20 Aug 2012.

  19. Chêne G, Thompson SG. Methods for summarizing the risk associations of quantitative variables in epidemiologic studies in a consistent form. Am J Epidemiol. 1996;144(6):610–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. DerSimonian R, Laird N. Meta-analysis in clinical trials. Control Clin Trials. 1986;7(3):177–88.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Greenland S, Longnecker MP. Methods for trend estimation from summarized dose-response data, with applications to meta-analysis. Am J Epidemiol. 1992;135(11):1301–9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Orsini N, Bellocco R, Greenland S. Generalized least squares for trend estimation of summarized dose-response data. Stata J. 2006;6:40–57.

    Google Scholar 

  23. Higgins JP, Thompson SG, Deeks JJ, Altman DG. Measuring inconsistency in meta-analyses. BMJ. 2003;327(7414):557–60. doi:10.1136/bmj.327.7414.557.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Higgins JP, Thompson SG. Quantifying heterogeneity in a meta-analysis. Stat Med. 2002;21(11):1539–58. doi:10.1002/sim.1186.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Begg CB, Mazumdar M. Operating characteristics of a rank correlation test for publication bias. Biometrics. 1994;50(4):1088–101.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Egger M, Davey Smith G, Schneider M, Minder C. Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test. BMJ. 1997;315(7109):629–34.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Forman JP, Bischoff-Ferrari HA, Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, Curhan GC. Vitamin D intake and risk of incident hypertension: results from three large prospective cohort studies. Hypertension. 2005;46(4):676–82. doi:10.1161/01.HYP.0000182662.82666.37.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Anderson JL, May HT, Horne BD, Bair TL, Hall NL, Carlquist JF, et al. Relation of vitamin D deficiency to cardiovascular risk factors, disease status, and incident events in a general healthcare population. Am J Cardiol. 2010;106(7):963–8. doi:10.1016/j.amjcard.2010.05.027.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Jorde R, Figenschau Y, Emaus N, Hutchinson M, Grimnes G. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels are strongly related to systolic blood pressure but do not predict future hypertension. Hypertension. 2010;55(3):792–8. doi:10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.109.143990.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Wang L, Manson JE, Buring JE, Lee I-M, Sesso HD. Dietary intake of diary products, calcium, and vitamin D and risk of hypertension in middle-aged and older women. Hypertension. 2008;51:1073–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Sterne J, Becker B, Egger M. The funnel plot. In: Rothstein H, Sutton A, Borenstein M, editors. Publication bias in meta-analysis. prevention, assessment and adjustments. Chichester, United Kingdom: Wiley; 2005.

  32. Lee JH, O’Keefe JH, Bell D, Hensrud DD, Holick MF. Vitamin D deficiency an important, common, and easily treatable cardiovascular risk factor? J Am Coll Cardiol. 2008;52(24):1949–56. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2008.08.050.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Chiu KC, Chu A, Go VL, Saad MF. Hypovitaminosis D is associated with insulin resistance and beta cell dysfunction. Am J Clin Nutr. 2004;79(5):820–5.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Chonchol M, Scragg R. 25-Hydroxyvitamin D, insulin resistance, and kidney function in the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Kidney Int. 2007;71(2):134–9. doi:10.1038/sj.ki.5002002.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Sugden JA, Davies JI, Witham MD, Morris AD, Struthers AD. Vitamin D improves endothelial function in patients with Type 2 diabetes mellitus and low vitamin D levels. Diabet Med: J Brit Diabet Assoc. 2008;25(3):320–5.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Wang TJ, Pencina MJ, Booth SL, Jacques PF, Ingelsson E, Lanier K, et al. Vitamin D deficiency and risk of cardiovascular disease. Circulation. 2008;117(4):503–11. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.706127.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Dawson-Hughes B. What is the Optimal Dietary Intake of Vitamin D for Reducing Fracture Risk? Calcif Tissue Int. 2012;[Epub ahead of print].

  38. Norman PE, Vitamin Powell JT. Vitamin D shedding light on the development of disease in peripheral arteries. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2005;25(1):39–46. doi:10.1161/01.ATV.0000148450.56697.4a.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Feskanich D, Willett WC, Colditz GA. Calcium, vitamin D, milk consumption, and hip fractures: a prospective study among postmenopausal women. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003;77(2):504–11.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Willett W. Nutritional Epidemiology. 2nd Edition ed. New York: Oxford University; 1998.

  41. Sonderman JS, Munro HM, Blot WJ, Signorello LB. Reproducibility of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin d and vitamin D-binding protein levels over time in a prospective cohort study of black and white adults. Am J Epidemiol. 2012;176(7):615–21. doi:10.1093/aje/kws141.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Hofmann JN, Yu K, Horst RL, Hayes RB, Purdue MP. Long-term variation in serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration among participants in the Prostate, Lung, Colorectal, and Ovarian Cancer Screening Trial. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev: Publ Am Assoc Cancer Res Cosponsor Am Soc Prevent Oncol. 2010;19(4):927–31. doi:10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-09-1121.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Scragg R, Sowers M, Bell C. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D, diabetes, and ethnicity in the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Diabet Care. 2004;27(12):2813–8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Riley RD, Lambert PC, Abo-Zaid G. Meta-analysis of individual participant data: rationale, conduct, and reporting. BMJ. 2010;340:c221. doi:10.1136/bmj.c221.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Elamin MB, Abu Elnour NO, Elamin KB, Fatourechi MM, Alkatib AA, Almandoz JP, et al. Vitamin D and cardiovascular outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. The. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;96(7):1931–42. doi:10.1210/jc.2011-0398.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Witham MD, Nadir MA, Struthers AD. Effect of vitamin D on blood pressure: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Hypertens. 2009;27(10):1948–54. doi:10.1097/HJH.0b013e32832f075b.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Manson JE, Bassuk SS, Lee IM, Cook NR, Albert MA, Gordon D, et al. The VITamin D and OmegA-3 TriaL (VITAL): rationale and design of a large randomized controlled trial of vitamin D and marine omega-3 fatty acid supplements for the primary prevention of cancer and cardiovascular disease. Contemp Clin Trials. 2012;33(1):159–71. doi:10.1016/j.cct.2011.09.009.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Davey Smith G, Ebrahim S. Mendelian randomization’: can genetic epidemiology contribute to understanding environmental determinants of disease? Int J Epidemiol. 2003;32(1):1–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Dastani Z, Li R, Richards B. Genetic regulation of vitamin D levels. Calcif Tissue Int. 2012;. doi:10.1007/s00223-012-9660-z.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Wang TJ, Zhang F, Richards JB, Kestenbaum B, van Meurs JB, Berry D, et al. Common genetic determinants of vitamin D insufficiency: a genome-wide association study. Lancet. 2010;376(9736):180–8. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60588-0.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Ahn J, Yu K, Stolzenberg-Solomon R, Simon KC, McCullough ML, Gallicchio L, et al. Genome-wide association study of circulating vitamin D levels. Hum Molecul Genet. 2010;19(13):2739–45. doi:10.1093/hmg/ddq155.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Berry DJ, Vimaleswaran KS, Whittaker JC, Hingorani AD, Hypponen E. Evaluation of genetic markers as instruments for mendelian randomization studies on vitamin D. PLoS One. 2012;7(5):e37465.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Lind L, Wengle B, Ljunghall S. Blood pressure is lowered by vitamin D (Alphacalcidol) during long-term treatment of patients with intermittent hypercalcaemia. Acta Med Scand. 1987;222:423–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Lind L, Lithell H, Skarfors E, Wide L, Ljunghall S. Reduction of blood pressure by treatment with alphacalcidol. A double-blind, placebo-controlled study in subjects with impaired glucose tolerance. Acta Med Scand. 1988;223(3):211–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Lind L, Wengle B, Wide L, Sorensen OH, Ljunghall S. Hypertension in primary hyperparathyroidism--reduction of blood pressure by long-term treatment with vitamin D (alphacalcidol). A double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Am J Hypertens. 1988;1(4 Pt 1):397–402.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Zoccali C, Mallamaci F, Delfino D, Ciccarelli M, Parlongo S, Iellamo D, et al. Double-blind randomized, crossover trial of calcium supplementation in essential hypertension. J Hypertens. 1988;6(6):451–5.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Lind L, Wengle B, Wide L, Ljunghall S. Reduction of blood pressure during long-term treatment with active vitamin D (alphacalcidol) is dependent on plasma renin activity and calcium status. A double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Am J Hypertens. 1989;2(1):20–5.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Orwoll ES, Oviatt S. Relationship of mineral metabolism and long-term calcium and cholecalciferol supplementation to blood pressure in normotensive men. Am J Clin Nutr. 1990;52(4):717–21.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Myrup B, Jensen GF, McNair P. Cardiovascular risk factors during estrogen-norethindrone and cholecalciferol treatment. Arch Intern Med. 1992;152(11):2265–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Pan WH, Wang CY, Li LA, Kao LS, Yeh SH. No significant effect of calcium and vitamin D supplementation on blood pressure and calcium metabolism in elderly Chinese. Chin J Physiol. 1993;36(2):85–94.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Scragg R, Khaw KT, Murphy S. Effect of winter oral vitamin D3 supplementation on cardiovascular risk factors in elderly adults. Europ J Clin Nutr. 1995;49(9):640–6.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Krause R, Buhring M, Hopfenmuller W, Holick MF, Sharma AM. Ultraviolet B and blood pressure. Lancet. 1998;352(9129):709–10.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Pfeifer M, Begerow B, Minne HW, Nachtigall D, Hansen C. Effects of a short-term vitamin D(3) and calcium supplementation on blood pressure and parathyroid hormone levels in elderly women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001;86(4):1633–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Schleithoff SS, Zittermann A, Tenderich G, Berthold HK, Stehle P, Koerfer R. Vitamin D supplementation improves cytokine profiles in patients with congestive heart failure: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 2006;83(4):754–9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Major GC, Alarie F, Dore J, Phouttama S, Tremblay A. Supplementation with calcium + vitamin D enhances the beneficial effect of weight loss on plasma lipid and lipoprotein concentrations. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;85(1):54–9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Nagpal J, Pande JN, Bhartia A. A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial of the short-term effect of vitamin D3 supplementation on insulin sensitivity in apparently healthy, middle-aged, centrally obese men. Diabet Medicine: J Brit Diabet Assoc. 2009;26(1):19–27. doi:10.1111/j.1464-5491.2008.02636.x.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Margolis KL, Ray RM, Van Horn L, Manson JE, Allison MA, Black HR, et al. Effect of calcium and vitamin D supplementation on blood pressure: the Women’s Health Initiative Randomized Trial. Hypertension. 2008;52(5):847–55. doi:10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.108.114991.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Daly RM, Nowson CA. Long-term effect of calcium-vitamin D(3) fortified milk on blood pressure and serum lipid concentrations in healthy older men. Europ J Clin Nutr. 2009;63(8):993–1000. doi:10.1038/ejcn.2008.79.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Jorde R, Sneve M, Torjesen P, Figenschau Y. No improvement in cardiovascular risk factors in overweight and obese subjects after supplementation with vitamin D3 for 1 year. J Intern Med. 2010;267(5):462–72.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Bolland MJ, Bacon CJ, Horne AM, Mason BH, Ames RW, Wang TK, et al. Vitamin D insufficiency and health outcomes over 5 y in older women. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010;91(1):82–9. doi:10.3945/ajcn.2009.28424.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Judd SE, Raiser SN, Kumari M, Tangpricha V. 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 reduces systolic blood pressure in hypertensive adults: a pilot feasibility study. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2010;121(1–2):445–7. doi:10.1016/j.jsbmb.2010.04.013.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. de Zeeuw D, Agarwal R, Amdahl M, Audhya P, Coyne D, Garimella T, et al. Selective vitamin D receptor activation with paricalcitol for reduction of albuminuria in patients with type 2 diabetes (VITAL study): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2010;376(9752):1543–51. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61032-X.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Witham MD, Dove FJ, Dryburgh M, Sugden JA, Morris AD, Struthers AD. The effect of different doses of vitamin D(3) on markers of vascular health in patients with type 2 diabetes: a randomised controlled trial. Diabetologia. 2010;53(10):2112–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Shab-Bidar S, Neyestani TR, Djazayery A, Eshraghian MR, Houshiarrad A, Gharavi A, et al. Regular consumption of vitamin D-fortified yogurt drink (Doogh) improved endothelial biomarkers in subjects with type 2 diabetes: a randomized double-blind clinical trial. BMC Med. 2011;9:125. doi:10.1186/1741-7015-9-125.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Larsen T, Mose FH, Bech JN, Hansen AB, Pedersen EB. Effect of cholecalciferol supplementation during winter months in patients with hypertension: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Am J Hypertens. 2012;25(11):1215–22. doi:10.1038/ajh.2012.111.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Liu LJ, Lv JC, Shi SF, Chen YQ, Zhang H, Wang HY. Oral calcitriol for reduction of proteinuria in patients with IgA nephropathy: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Kidney Dis. 2012;59(1):67–74. doi:10.1053/j.ajkd.2011.09.014.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Thadhani R, Appelbaum E, Pritchett Y, Chang Y, Wenger J, Tamez H, et al. Vitamin D therapy and cardiac structure and function in patients with chronic kidney disease: the PRIMO randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2012;307(7):674–84. doi:10.1001/jama.2012.120.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Conflict of interest

None.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Setor Kwadzo Kunutsor.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary material 1 (DOC 56 kb)

Appendices

Appendix 1

See Table 2.

Table 2 PRISMA 2009 check-list

Appendix 2

See Table 3.

Table 3 MOOSE Checklist Vitamin D and risk of future hypertension: meta-analysis of 283, 537 participants

Appendix 3 Literature search strategy

Relevant studies, published before November 30, 2012 (date last searched), were identified through electronic searches not limited to the English language using MEDLINE, EMBASE, and the Science Citation Index databases. Electronic searches were supplemented by scanning reference lists of articles identified for all relevant studies (including review articles), and by hand searching of relevant journals. The computer-based searches combined search terms related to vitamin D and hypertension without language restrictions.

  1. 1.

    MEDLINE strategy to identify relevant exposures: (“Vitamin D”[Mesh] OR “vitamin d”[All Fields] “25-hydroxyvitamin D”[Mesh] OR “25(OH)D”[Mesh] OR “25-hydroxycholecalciferol”[Mesh] OR “calcifediol”[Mesh] OR “calcidiol”[Mesh]).

  2. 2.

    MEDLINE strategy to identify relevant outcomes: (“Hypertension”[Mesh] OR “hypertension”[All Fields] OR “blood pressure”[Mesh])

  3. 3.

    MEDLINE strategy to identify relevant population: (“humans”[MeSH Terms])

Parts 1, 2 and 3 were combined using ‘AND’ to search MEDLINE. Each part was specifically translated for searching alternative databases.

Appendix 4

See Table 4.

Table 4 Randomized controlled trials of the effect of vitamin D supplementation on blood pressure, 1987–2012

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Kunutsor, S.K., Apekey, T.A. & Steur, M. Vitamin D and risk of future hypertension: meta-analysis of 283,537 participants. Eur J Epidemiol 28, 205–221 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10654-013-9790-2

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10654-013-9790-2

Keywords

Navigation