Table 4.

Summarized findings of studies (1970–2004) investigating the effects of yoga and yoga-based programs on insulin resistance, lipid profiles, and body size and composition, stratified by study design and intervention (yoga, including yoga-based meditation, alone vs. in combination with other interventions). Studies demonstrating beneficial effects are in bold type.

Findings, by Endpoint	Study Design
	Cross-Sectional (Yoga Alone)	Uncontrolled Clinical Trials (>2 sessions)		Non-Randomized Controlled Clinical Trials (>2 Sessions)		Randomized Clinical Trials (>2 sessions)
	Cross-Sectional (Yoga Alone)	Yoga Alone	Multiple Interventions	Yoga Alone	Multiple Interventions	Yoga Alone	Multiple Interventions
Markers of insulin resistance
Fasting glucose
Reduced		[85, 86, 89, 90]	[68, 92]	[88, 93]	[80]	[95]
No change		[94]^*					[87]
Post prandial glucose
Reduced		[85, 86, 89, 91]	[92]
No change							[87]
Reduced fasting insulin							[87](NS)
Reduced fasting glycated hemoglobin		[85, 86]				[95]
Lipid profiles
Total Cholesterol
Reduced	[96]	[94](NS) [89, 90, 97]^†	[68]	[88]	[80, 98]		[78, 79, 99]
Increased							[100]
Unchanged							[79]^‡ [101]
Triglycerides
Reduced	[96]						[78, 99, 100]
Increased		[94]
Increased high density lipoproteins			[68]
Low density lipoprotein (LDL)
Reduced					[80, 98]		[78, 99]
Increased							[100]
Anthropometric markers
Reduced BMI			[92]		[98]		[100]
Reduced		[89, 91, 103]	[104]	[93]	[80]	[106, 107]	[78, 99]
Unchanged		[97]^† [108]		[109]			[101]
Body composition
Reduced waist, hip circumference						[106]
Reduced skin fold thickness^{^‡}						[106]
↓ % body fat, ↑ % lean mass		[105]
No change (% body fat, fat mass)		[108]

* Sexes analyzed separately; trend toward reduced fasting glucose in men (N = 53, 0.5 < P < .1), despite low baseline fasting glucose levels (x = 64.4 ± 6.2).
^† With biofeedback.
^‡ In individuals at risk for CVD, cholesterol was lower at 0 and 8 months post-intervention, but not at 4 year follow-up
§Triceps, subscapular, thigh, calf, etc, skin folds.106