Reference, Location | Sample Size (Yoga, Controls) | Duration | Comparison Group/Condition | Intervention | Endpoints Examined* | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
IR indices | Lipids | Body Size/Comp | Blood Pressure | Coagulation | Oxidative Stress | Symp/PS Markers | Clin. End Points | ||||||
Cross-sectional Studies | |||||||||||||
Healthy adults | |||||||||||||
India96 | 105 (35, 35, 35) | NA | Raja M <5 years; no M experience | Raja M experience ≥5 years | X+ | X+ | X+ | ||||||
Changes during 1–2 yoga sessions | |||||||||||||
Healthy adults | |||||||||||||
Germany110 | 25 (12, 13) | 1 session | Relaxed reading (controls) | Hatha yoga (experienced practitioners) | X− | X− | |||||||
Australia142 | 23 (12, 11) | 2 sessions | Reading | 15 km run (elite runners) or M (experienced meditators) | X+ | ||||||||
India145 | 7 | 1 session | Non-targeted thinking | Yoga M (silent chanting) | X+ | ||||||||
India144 | 27 | 1 session | 2 non-yoga resting postures | Shavasana | X+ | ||||||||
Japan82 | 8 | 1 session | Ss own controls | Yoga (rest, AS, PR, M) | X+ | ||||||||
Italy36 | 23 | 1 session | Talking, free breathing | Yoga mantras, slow controlled breathing | X+ | ||||||||
India143 | 35 | 2 sessions | Supine rest | Yoga-based guided relaxation/M | X+ | ||||||||
India138 | 24 (10, 14) | 1 session | Naïve controls during rest | SKY yoga by trained subjects | X+ | ||||||||
Uncontrolled Clinical Trials | |||||||||||||
Healthy Adults | |||||||||||||
India89 | 12 | 6 months | Ss own controls | Hatha yoga course | X+ | X+ | X+ | X− | |||||
India147 | 20 | 10 full d | Ss own controls 2 camps compared | Vispanna Yoga; strict diet | X+ | ||||||||
India90 | 10 | 4 months | Ss own controls | Yoga (AS, PR, M) | X+ | X+ | X+ | X+ | |||||
India94 | 73 | 3 months | Ss own controls | Yoga (PR, AS, SH) | X− | X− | |||||||
India116 | 17 | 3 months | Ss own controls | Yoga (AS, PR) | X+ | X+ | |||||||
India136 | 7 | 4 months | Ss own controls | Yoga (AS, PR, M) | X+ | ||||||||
India117 | 8 | 2 months | Ss own controls | SH + autogenic phrases with biofeedback | X+ | X+ | |||||||
India139 | 75 | 6 weeks | Ss own controls | Yoga PR | X+ | ||||||||
India103 | 8 | 30 days | Ss own controls | Santhi Kriya yoga | X+ | X− | X+ | ||||||
India104 | 40 | 3 months | Ss own controls | Residential program: yoga (AS, PR, M) + education | X+ | X+ | X+ | ||||||
India105 | 6 | 4 weeks | Ss own controls | Yoga (PR, AS) | X+ | X+ | |||||||
India111 | 8 | 2 weeks | Ss own controls | Sarvangasana | X− | X+ | |||||||
India140 | 26 | 2 full days | Ss own controls | Yoga + stress management | X+ | ||||||||
U.S.108 | 10 | 8 weeks | Ss own controls | Hatha yoga classes (PR, AS, SH) | X− | ||||||||
Adults with hypertension/CAD | |||||||||||||
UK97 | 14 | 6 weeks | Ss own controls | Relaxation, M w/biofeedback | X+ | X− | X+ | ||||||
India118 | 44 | 30 days | Ss own controls | Yoga + diet | X+ | ||||||||
India119 | 25 | 6 months | Ss own controls | Shavasana yoga | X+ | X+ | |||||||
India68 | 20 | 78 sessions | Ss own controls | Yoga (AS, PR, M, SH) + education | X+ | X+ | X+ | X+ | X+ | ||||
Adults with uncomplicated DM | |||||||||||||
India91 | 52 | 6+ months | Ss own controls | Yoga (AS, SH) | X+ | X+ | X+ | ||||||
India92 | 149 | 40 days | Ss own controls | Residential yoga + diet | X+ | X+ | X+ | ||||||
India85 | 19 | 40 days | Ss own controls | Yoga (AS, PR, M) | X+ | X+ | |||||||
India86 | 24 | 40 days | Ss own controls | Supervised yoga AS, PR | X+ | ||||||||
Adults with SMI | |||||||||||||
India157 | 37 | 3 months | Ss own controls | SKY yoga | X− | ||||||||
Canada158 | 69 | 8 weeks | Ss own controls | MBSR program (relaxation, yoga, M, daily practice) | X−/+ | ||||||||
Children & adults with asthma | |||||||||||||
India151 | 9 | 7 days | Ss own controls | Residential yoga (AS, PR) + diet | X+ | ||||||||
Non-randomized controlled trials | |||||||||||||
Healthy adults | |||||||||||||
India112 | 28 (14, 14) | 6 months | Non-yogic exercise | Yoga training (AS, PR) | X− | X+ | |||||||
India93 | 10 (4, 4, 2) | 6 months | Exercise; Ss own controls | 2 yoga AS routines | X+ | X+ | X+ | X+ | |||||
India153 | 20 (10, 10) | 2.5 months | Similar sedentary controls | Yoga PR, AS | X+ | ||||||||
India88 | 180 (45, 45, 45, 45) | 12 weeks | Untrained controls | PR: Ujjayi, Bhastrika, or combination | X+ | X+ | |||||||
Germany98 | 154 (118, 36)§ | 3 months | Non-participants matched for analyses | Residential program: Kriya yoga + diet | X+ | X+ | X+ | X+ | X+ | ||||
India137 | 60 (30, 30) | 10 weeks | Sedentary controls | Yogic PR training | X+ | ||||||||
India138 | 24 (10, 14) | 5 months | No yoga practice | SKY Yoga | X+ | ||||||||
India113 | 16 (8, 8) | 1 (Ph I) to 2 years (Ph II) | Exercise only(N = 6, Phase I; N = 8, Phase II) | Yoga PR + exercise (N = 6, Phase I; N = 8, Phase II) | X− | X− | |||||||
Adults with hypertension/CAD | |||||||||||||
UK121 | 40 (20, 20) | 3 months | Usual care; also meet but rest on couch | Yoga relaxation/M with biofeedback | X+ | X+ | |||||||
UK122 | 47 (27, 20) | 9 weeks | Usual care, also meet but rest on couch | Training in yoga relaxation & M + home practice 2×/wk | X+ | X+ | |||||||
USA124 | 19 (14, 5) | 6 months | Usual care | Buddhist M, PR, and relaxation training/practice | X+ | X+ | |||||||
India123† | 60 (20, 10, 20, 10) | 4 to 6 weeks | Group II: 2 weeks SH, 2 weeks drugs, 2 weeks both (2 weeks between each) | I, IV: 4 weeks SH III: 4 weeks SH + meds | X+ | X+ | |||||||
India109 | 14 (7, 7) | 6 months (17 sessions) | Usual care, met 1×/week | Yoga, PR, relaxation (Phase I) + thermal biofeedback (Phase II) | X− | X+ | X+ | ||||||
India120 | 20 (10, 10) | 3 weeks | Postural tilt table | Postural yoga asanas | X+ | X+ | |||||||
India80 | 113 (71, 42)++ | 12 months, (21 sessions) | Usual care: Meds, diet, moderate exercise | Yoga + diet, walking, stress management, meds | X+ | X+ | X+ | X+ | |||||
Randomized controlled trials | |||||||||||||
Healthy adults | |||||||||||||
India125 | 18 (6, 6, 6) | 12 weeks | 20 minutes rest (controls) | 20 min. TM, SH | X+ | X+ | |||||||
India106 | 40 (20, 20) | 12 months | No yoga training | Yoga (AS, PR, PR, mudras, kriyas) | X+ | ||||||||
Japan126 | 90 (45, 45) | 3 weekly trainings | Jacobsen progressive muscle relaxation | Hatha yoga classes (PR, AS, relaxation) | X+ | X+ | |||||||
UK114 | 26 (12, 14) | 6 weeks | Aerobic training (cycling) | Yoga training (AS, PR, relaxation) | X− | X+ | |||||||
India127 | 54 (28, 26) | 10 months | No yoga until month 6; yoga month 6–10 | Hatha yoga AS, PR, KR; mo. 1–10 | X+ | X+ | |||||||
USA87 | 46 (20, 9, 14) | 12 months | Usual care; diet, exercise, educ, supplements | Yoga M, AS + walking, diet | X+ | X+ | X+ | ||||||
India128 | 30 (15, 15) | 3 months | Flexibility, aerobic exercise | Hatha yoga (AS, PR), Omkar meditation | X+ | X− | |||||||
Adults with Hypertension or CVD or at risk for CVD | |||||||||||||
UK152 | 32 (16, 16) | 6 weeks | Usual care, anti-HT drugs | Yoga relaxation, M training with BF+ | X+ | ||||||||
UK130 | 34 (17, 17) | 6 weeks | Placebo therapy (rest supine) | Yoga relaxation, PR + biofeedback | X+ | X+ | |||||||
UK102 | 192 (99, 93) | 8 weeks | Usual care + lifestyle education | PR, relaxation, M stress management + lifestyle education | X+ | X+ | |||||||
UK79 | 161 (86, 75) | 8 weeks | Usual care + lifestyle education (0, 8 month, 4 year followup) | PR, M, relaxation + stress management, education | X+/− | X+ | X+ | ||||||
UK129 | 99 (49, 54) | 8 weeks | Same medication/placebo schedule; no training | Relaxation, M with biofeedback + education, home practice | X+ | X+ | |||||||
Holland101 | 35 (18, 17) | 8 weeks, + Cont. 1 year | Sit, relax 2×/days + support, non-specific counseling | Yoga PR, AS, PMR, stress management | X− | X− | X− | ||||||
India99 | 93 (52, 18) | Camp + 14 weeks practice | Standard care, diet control, exercise | 4 d yoga camp + diet; yoga practice (AS, PR, SH, M) | X+ | X+ | |||||||
India78 | 42 (21, 21) | 4 days training + 1 year | Usual care, regular evaluations | Yoga: (PR, AS, K, M) + diet, exercise, regular evaluations | X+ | X+ | X+ | ||||||
India107 | 33 (11, 11, 11) | 11 weeks | Hypertension medication; no tx | Yoga (M, PR, AS) training/practice | X+ | X+ | X+ | ||||||
Thailand100 | 44 (22, 22) | 4 months | Usual care, including drug therapy | Yoga AS, SH + imagery education, stress management, support groups | X+ | X+ | |||||||
India131 | 40 (10, 10, 10, 10) | 8 days | Conversation regarding neutral topics | SH, Broota method, or Jacobsen PMR | X+ | ||||||||
Adults with Type II DM | |||||||||||||
UK95 | 21 (11, 10) | 12 weeks | Usual care | Yoga classes (PR, AS, SH) | X+ | X+ | |||||||
Adults/Children with epilepsy | |||||||||||||
India146 | 32 (10, 10, 12) | 6 months | Sham yoga exercise, usual care | Sahaja yoga M | X+ | X+ | |||||||
Healthy Children | |||||||||||||
India141 | 28 (14, 14) | 6 months | Games (jog, races, rapid stretches+) | Yoga AS | X+ | ||||||||
India115 | 24 (12, 12) | 3 months | No yoga practice/training | PR exercises | X− | X+ |
* +, positive (beneficial) findings for 1 or more endpoints within a given category; −, no beneficial effects demonstrated.
† Including 10 normotensive adults (Group I).
‡Including a subset of patients with diabetes mellitus.
§ 36 to 72 analyzed in matched analyses.
Abbreviations and explanation of terms: AS, yoga asanas or postures; BF, biofeedback; BP, blood pressure; Clin, clinical; comp, composition; DM, diabetes mellitus; IR, insulin resistance (markers of); KR, kriyas or cleansing exercises; M, meditation; MBSR, mindfulness-based stress-reduction program; PMR, progressive muscle relaxation; PR, pranayama or yogic breathing exercises; SH, Shavasana or corpse pose, a traditional yoga relaxation pose; Symp/PS, markers of sympathetic/parasympathetic activation and cardiovagal function, including heart and respiratory rate, neuroendocrine markers, markers of cardiovascular reactivity to and recovery from stress, and indices of heart rate variability and baroreflex sensitivity; Santhi Kriya yoga: 3 stages, totaling 50 minutes: (1) 10 minutes PR while in standing and sitting postures; (2) 10 min chanting, meditation, and breathing exercises while in shavasana (corpse pose); and (3) 30 min of relaxation and concentrative meditation (dahara vidya); SKY, Sudharshan kriya yoga, developed by Pundit Ravishankar from Bangalore, India, uses specific yoga breathing exercises (Ujjayii, Bhastrika, cyclical breathing); sessions typically close with Yoga Nidra (tranquil state) in a supine posture.