Table 3.

Characteristics and relevant endpoints of eligible studies. Under endpoint categories, a plus indicates a beneficial change in at least one marker; a negative sign indicates no change in any of the markers in a specific category

Reference, Location	Sample Size (Yoga, Controls)	Duration	Comparison Group/Condition	Intervention	Endpoints Examined^*
Reference, Location	Sample Size (Yoga, Controls)	Duration	Comparison Group/Condition	Intervention	IR indices	Lipids	Body Size/Comp	Blood Pressure	Coagulation	Oxidative Stress	Symp/PS Markers	Clin. End Points
Cross-sectional Studies
Healthy adults
India96	105 (35, 35, 35)	NA	Raja M <5 years; no M experience	Raja M experience ≥5 years		X+		X+			X+
Changes during 1–2 yoga sessions
Healthy adults
Germany110	25 (12, 13)	1 session	Relaxed reading (controls)	Hatha yoga (experienced practitioners)				X−			X−
Australia142	23 (12, 11)	2 sessions	Reading	15 km run (elite runners) or M (experienced meditators)							X+
India145	7	1 session	Non-targeted thinking	Yoga M (silent chanting)							X+
India144	27	1 session	2 non-yoga resting postures	Shavasana							X+
Japan82	8	1 session	Ss own controls	Yoga (rest, AS, PR, M)							X+
Italy36	23	1 session	Talking, free breathing	Yoga mantras, slow controlled breathing							X+
India143	35	2 sessions	Supine rest	Yoga-based guided relaxation/M							X+
India138	24 (10, 14)	1 session	Naïve controls during rest	SKY yoga by trained subjects						X+
Uncontrolled Clinical Trials
Healthy Adults
India89	12	6 months	Ss own controls	Hatha yoga course	X+	X+	X+				X−
India147	20	10 full d	Ss own controls 2 camps compared	Vispanna Yoga; strict diet							X+
India90	10	4 months	Ss own controls	Yoga (AS, PR, M)	X+	X+		X+			X+
India94	73	3 months	Ss own controls	Yoga (PR, AS, SH)	X−	X−
India116	17	3 months	Ss own controls	Yoga (AS, PR)				X+			X+
India136	7	4 months	Ss own controls	Yoga (AS, PR, M)					X+
India117	8	2 months	Ss own controls	SH + autogenic phrases with biofeedback				X+			X+
India139	75	6 weeks	Ss own controls	Yoga PR							X+
India103	8	30 days	Ss own controls	Santhi Kriya yoga			X+	X−			X+
India104	40	3 months	Ss own controls	Residential program: yoga (AS, PR, M) + education			X+	X+			X+
India105	6	4 weeks	Ss own controls	Yoga (PR, AS)			X+				X+
India111	8	2 weeks	Ss own controls	Sarvangasana				X−			X+
India140	26	2 full days	Ss own controls	Yoga + stress management							X+
U.S.108	10	8 weeks	Ss own controls	Hatha yoga classes (PR, AS, SH)			X−
Adults with hypertension/CAD
UK97	14	6 weeks	Ss own controls	Relaxation, M w/biofeedback		X+	X−	X+
India118	44	30 days	Ss own controls	Yoga + diet				X+
India119	25	6 months	Ss own controls	Shavasana yoga				X+				X+
India68	20	78 sessions	Ss own controls	Yoga (AS, PR, M, SH) + education	X+	X+				X+	X+	X+
Adults with uncomplicated DM
India91	52	6+ months	Ss own controls	Yoga (AS, SH)	X+		X+					X+
India92	149	40 days	Ss own controls	Residential yoga + diet	X+		X+					X+
India85	19	40 days	Ss own controls	Yoga (AS, PR, M)	X+					X+
India86	24	40 days	Ss own controls	Supervised yoga AS, PR	X+
Adults with SMI
India157	37	3 months	Ss own controls	SKY yoga							X−
Canada158	69	8 weeks	Ss own controls	MBSR program (relaxation, yoga, M, daily practice)							X−/+
Children & adults with asthma
India151	9	7 days	Ss own controls	Residential yoga (AS, PR) + diet							X+
Non-randomized controlled trials
Healthy adults
India112	28 (14, 14)	6 months	Non-yogic exercise	Yoga training (AS, PR)				X−			X+
India93	10 (4, 4, 2)	6 months	Exercise; Ss own controls	2 yoga AS routines	X+		X+	X+			X+
India153	20 (10, 10)	2.5 months	Similar sedentary controls	Yoga PR, AS							X+
India88	180 (45, 45, 45, 45)	12 weeks	Untrained controls	PR: Ujjayi, Bhastrika, or combination	X+	X+
Germany98	154 (118, 36)^{^§}	3 months	Non-participants matched for analyses	Residential program: Kriya yoga + diet		X+	X+	X+	X+		X+
India137	60 (30, 30)	10 weeks	Sedentary controls	Yogic PR training						X+
India138	24 (10, 14)	5 months	No yoga practice	SKY Yoga						X+
India113	16 (8, 8)	1 (Ph I) to 2 years (Ph II)	Exercise only(N = 6, Phase I; N = 8, Phase II)	Yoga PR + exercise (N = 6, Phase I; N = 8, Phase II)				X−			X−
Adults with hypertension/CAD
UK121	40 (20, 20)	3 months	Usual care; also meet but rest on couch	Yoga relaxation/M with biofeedback				X+				X+
UK122	47 (27, 20)	9 weeks	Usual care, also meet but rest on couch	Training in yoga relaxation & M + home practice 2×/wk				X+				X+
USA124	19 (14, 5)	6 months	Usual care	Buddhist M, PR, and relaxation training/practice				X+			X+
India123^†	60 (20, 10, 20, 10)	4 to 6 weeks	Group II: 2 weeks SH, 2 weeks drugs, 2 weeks both (2 weeks between each)	I, IV: 4 weeks SH III: 4 weeks SH + meds				X+			X+
India109	14 (7, 7)	6 months (17 sessions)	Usual care, met 1×/week	Yoga, PR, relaxation (Phase I) + thermal biofeedback (Phase II)			X−	X+				X+
India120	20 (10, 10)	3 weeks	Postural tilt table	Postural yoga asanas				X+			X+
India80	113 (71, 42)++	12 months, (21 sessions)	Usual care: Meds, diet, moderate exercise	Yoga + diet, walking, stress management, meds	X+	X+	X+					X+
Randomized controlled trials
Healthy adults
India125	18 (6, 6, 6)	12 weeks	20 minutes rest (controls)	20 min. TM, SH				X+			X+
India106	40 (20, 20)	12 months	No yoga training	Yoga (AS, PR, PR, mudras, kriyas)			X+
Japan126	90 (45, 45)	3 weekly trainings	Jacobsen progressive muscle relaxation	Hatha yoga classes (PR, AS, relaxation)				X+			X+
UK114	26 (12, 14)	6 weeks	Aerobic training (cycling)	Yoga training (AS, PR, relaxation)				X−			X+
India127	54 (28, 26)	10 months	No yoga until month 6; yoga month 6–10	Hatha yoga AS, PR, KR; mo. 1–10				X+			X+
USA87	46 (20, 9, 14)	12 months	Usual care; diet, exercise, educ, supplements	Yoga M, AS + walking, diet	X+			X+				X+
India128	30 (15, 15)	3 months	Flexibility, aerobic exercise	Hatha yoga (AS, PR), Omkar meditation				X+			X−
Adults with Hypertension or CVD or at risk for CVD
UK152	32 (16, 16)	6 weeks	Usual care, anti-HT drugs	Yoga relaxation, M training with BF+							X+
UK130	34 (17, 17)	6 weeks	Placebo therapy (rest supine)	Yoga relaxation, PR + biofeedback				X+				X+
UK102	192 (99, 93)	8 weeks	Usual care + lifestyle education	PR, relaxation, M stress management + lifestyle education				X+			X+
UK79	161 (86, 75)	8 weeks	Usual care + lifestyle education (0, 8 month, 4 year followup)	PR, M, relaxation + stress management, education		X+/−		X+				X+
UK129	99 (49, 54)	8 weeks	Same medication/placebo schedule; no training	Relaxation, M with biofeedback + education, home practice				X+				X+
Holland101	35 (18, 17)	8 weeks, + Cont. 1 year	Sit, relax 2×/days + support, non-specific counseling	Yoga PR, AS, PMR, stress management		X−	X−	X−
India99	93 (52, 18)	Camp + 14 weeks practice	Standard care, diet control, exercise	4 d yoga camp + diet; yoga practice (AS, PR, SH, M)		X+	X+
India78	42 (21, 21)	4 days training + 1 year	Usual care, regular evaluations	Yoga: (PR, AS, K, M) + diet, exercise, regular evaluations		X+	X+					X+
India107	33 (11, 11, 11)	11 weeks	Hypertension medication; no tx	Yoga (M, PR, AS) training/practice			X+	X+			X+
Thailand100	44 (22, 22)	4 months	Usual care, including drug therapy	Yoga AS, SH + imagery education, stress management, support groups		X+				X+
India131	40 (10, 10, 10, 10)	8 days	Conversation regarding neutral topics	SH, Broota method, or Jacobsen PMR				X+
Adults with Type II DM
UK95	21 (11, 10)	12 weeks	Usual care	Yoga classes (PR, AS, SH)	X+							X+
Adults/Children with epilepsy
India146	32 (10, 10, 12)	6 months	Sham yoga exercise, usual care	Sahaja yoga M						X+	X+
Healthy Children
India141	28 (14, 14)	6 months	Games (jog, races, rapid stretches+)	Yoga AS							X+
India115	24 (12, 12)	3 months	No yoga practice/training	PR exercises				X−			X+

* +, positive (beneficial) findings for 1 or more endpoints within a given category; −, no beneficial effects demonstrated.
^† Including 10 normotensive adults (Group I).
‡Including a subset of patients with diabetes mellitus.
^§ 36 to 72 analyzed in matched analyses.
Abbreviations and explanation of terms: AS, yoga asanas or postures; BF, biofeedback; BP, blood pressure; Clin, clinical; comp, composition; DM, diabetes mellitus; IR, insulin resistance (markers of); KR, kriyas or cleansing exercises; M, meditation; MBSR, mindfulness-based stress-reduction program; PMR, progressive muscle relaxation; PR, pranayama or yogic breathing exercises; SH, Shavasana or corpse pose, a traditional yoga relaxation pose; Symp/PS, markers of sympathetic/parasympathetic activation and cardiovagal function, including heart and respiratory rate, neuroendocrine markers, markers of cardiovascular reactivity to and recovery from stress, and indices of heart rate variability and baroreflex sensitivity; Santhi Kriya yoga: 3 stages, totaling 50 minutes: (1) 10 minutes PR while in standing and sitting postures; (2) 10 min chanting, meditation, and breathing exercises while in shavasana (corpse pose); and (3) 30 min of relaxation and concentrative meditation (dahara vidya); SKY, Sudharshan kriya yoga, developed by Pundit Ravishankar from Bangalore, India, uses specific yoga breathing exercises (Ujjayii, Bhastrika, cyclical breathing); sessions typically close with Yoga Nidra (tranquil state) in a supine posture.