Table 1.

Baseline Sociodemographic, Clinical, and Psychological Characteristics of Patients (N = 358)

Characteristic	No.	%
Age, y
21–49	111	31
50–59	128	36
60–79	119	33
Sex
Male	100	28
Female	258	72
Race
White	248	69
Non-White	110	31
Ethnicity
Non-Hispanic	313	87
Hispanic	45	13
Highest educational level
High school diploma or lower	91	25
Post-high school or some college	142	40
College degree or higher	125	35
Cigarette smoking status
Never or former smoker	297	83
Current smoker	61	17
Chronic low back pain duration
Less or equal to 5 y	128	36
Greater than 5 y	230	64
History of low back surgery
No	301	84
Yes	57	16
Ever unemployed or unable to do usual work for one month or longer due to low back pain
No	224	63
Yes	134	37
Ever received disability or workers' compensation benefits relating to low back pain
No	273	76
Yes	85	24
Ever involved in a lawsuit or legal claim relating to low back pain
No	321	90
Yes	37	10
History of comorbidities
Herniated disc
No	232	65
Yes	126	35
Sciatica
No	241	67
Yes	117	33
Osteoarthritis
No	242	68
Yes	116	32
Osteoporosis
No	319	89
Yes	39	11
Heart disease
No	321	90
Yes	37	10
Hypertension
No	218	61
Yes	140	39
Diabetes
No	283	79
Yes	75	21
Asthma
No	256	72
Yes	102	28
Depression
No	192	54
Yes	166	46
Pain catastrophizing (PCS score)
Low (0–8)	112	31
Moderate (9–22)	123	34
High (23–52)	123	34
Pain self-efficacy (PSEQ score)
Low (0–28)	117	33
Moderate (29–42)	116	32
High (43–60)	125	35
Current use of opioids for low back pain
No	227	63
Yes	131	37

Abbreviations: PCS, Pain Catastrophizing Scale; PSEQ, Pain Self-Efficacy Questionnaire.