Factors Associated with Widespread Pain (N = 358)
| Factor | Univariate Analysis | Multivariate Analysis | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| OR | 95% CI | P | OR | 95% CI | P | |
| Age, y | ||||||
| 21–49 | 1 | … | … | 1 | … | … |
| 50–59 | 1.6 | 0.8–3.3 | .17 | 1.3 | 0.6–3.1 | .49 |
| 60–79 | 1.2 | 0.6–2.4 | .56 | 1.7 | 0.6–4.5 | .30 |
| Sex | ||||||
| Male | 1 | … | … | 1 | … | … |
| Female | 1.2 | 0.6–2.1 | .66 | 1.5 | 0.7–3.4 | .34 |
| Race | ||||||
| White | 1 | … | … | 1 | … | … |
| Non-White | 3.6 | 1.6–8.3 | .002 | 4.1 | 1.5–10.8 | .01 |
| Ethnicity | ||||||
| Non-Hispanic | 1 | … | … | 1 | … | … |
| Hispanic | 1.2 | 0.5–3.1 | .65 | 1.8 | 0.6–5.5 | .29 |
| Highest educational level | ||||||
| High school diploma or lower | 1 | … | … | 1 | … | … |
| Post-high school or some college | 1.0 | 0.4–2.4 | .92 | 1.8 | 0.6–5.2 | .26 |
| College degree or higher | 0.2 | 0.1–0.6 | .001 | 0.6 | 0.2–1.8 | .38 |
| Cigarette smoking status | ||||||
| Never or former smoker | 1 | … | … | 1 | … | … |
| Current smoker | 3.0 | 1.1–8.7 | .04 | 1.3 | 0.4–4.5 | .68 |
| Chronic low back pain duration | ||||||
| Less than or equal to 5 y | 1 | … | … | 1 | … | … |
| Greater than 5 y | 1.6 | 0.9–2.8 | .13 | 1.6 | 0.8–3.2 | .19 |
| History of low back surgery | ||||||
| No | 1 | … | … | 1 | … | … |
| Yes | 1.2 | 0.5–2.6 | .72 | 0.7 | 0.3–2.1 | .58 |
| History of comorbidities | ||||||
| Herniated disc | ||||||
| No | 1 | … | … | 1 | … | … |
| Yes | 1.4 | 0.8–2.7 | .26 | 1.2 | 0.5–2.7 | .67 |
| Sciatica | ||||||
| No | 1 | … | … | 1 | … | … |
| Yes | 1.0 | 0.6–1.9 | .93 | 0.9 | 0.4–1.9 | .79 |
| Osteoarthritis | ||||||
| No | 1 | … | … | 1 | … | … |
| Yes | 1.4 | 0.7–2.6 | .33 | 1.0 | 0.5–2.4 | .92 |
| Osteoporosis | ||||||
| No | 1 | … | … | 1 | … | … |
| Yes | 1.3 | 0.5–3.5 | 0.61 | 0.8 | 0.2–2.9 | 0.77 |
| Heart disease | ||||||
| No | 1 | … | … | 1 | … | … |
| Yes | 1.2 | 0.5–3.3 | .71 | 1.7 | 0.5–5.7 | .40 |
| Hypertension | ||||||
| No | 1 | … | … | 1 | … | … |
| Yes | 1.3 | 0.7–2.4 | .39 | 0.9 | 0.4–1.9 | .70 |
| Diabetes | ||||||
| No | 1 | … | … | 1 | … | … |
| Yes | 2.5 | 1.0–6.0 | .046 | 1.8 | 0.6-5.4 | .28 |
| Asthma | ||||||
| No | 1 | … | … | 1 | … | … |
| Yes | 1.0 | 0.5–1.9 | .99 | 0.6 | 0.3–1.3 | .18 |
| Depression | ||||||
| No | 1 | … | … | 1 | … | … |
| Yes | 2.5 | 1.3–4.6 | .004 | 0.8 | 0.4–2.0 | .69 |
| Pain catastrophizing (PCS score) | ||||||
| Low (0–8) | 1 | … | … | 1 | … | … |
| Moderate (9–22) | 4.3 | 2.2–8.7 | <.001 | 4.7 | 2.1–11.0 | <.001 |
| High (23–52) | 12.1 | 4.6–32.2 | <.001 | 6.8 | 2.1–22.1 | .002 |
| Pain self-efficacy (PSEQ score) | ||||||
| Low (0–28) | 1 | … | … | 1 | … | … |
| Moderate (29–42) | 0.4 | 0.2–1.0 | .052 | 0.7 | 0.2–2.1 | .55 |
| High (43–60) | 0.2 | 0.1–0.4 | <.001 | 0.7 | 0.2–2.2 | .52 |
| Currently using opioids for low back pain | ||||||
| No | 1 | … | … | 1 | … | … |
| Yes | 3.5 | 1.7–7.5 | .001 | 2.1 | 0.8–5.4 | .12 |
Results are for widespread pain (either non-persistent or persistent) relative to no widespread pain. Multivariate analysis included all univariate factors.
Abbreviations: PCS, Pain Catastrophizing Scale; PSEQ, Pain Self-Efficacy Questionnaire; OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval.