Unadjusted Associations between Covariates and Outcomes
| None (n = 918) | Opioid Only (n = 109) | Nonopioid Only (n = 525) | Both (n = 94) | P-value | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age (mean ± SD) | 57.63 (16.2) | 61.5 (13.7) | 50.99 (14.5) | 56.7 (13.2) | <.000 |
| Sex (female) | 635 (69.2) | 68 (62.4) | 359 (68.4) | 56 (59.6) | .154 |
| Race (% white) | 513 (55.9) | 58 (53.2) | 277 (52.8) | 52 (55.3) | .700 |
| HCU (% y) | 469 (51.1) | 83 (76.1) | 245 (46.7) | 58 (61.7) | <.000 |
| Smoking status | <.000 | ||||
| Never | 515 (56.1) | 38 (34.9) | 292 (55.6) | 39 (41.5) | |
| Ever | 403 (43.9) | 71 (65.1) | 233 (44.4) | 55 (58.5) | |
| Depression (% y) | 135 (14.7) | 24 (22) | 67 (12.8) | 15 (16) | .095 |
| Any anxiety (% y) | 72 (7.8) | 11 (10.1) | 53 (10.1) | 6 (6.4) | .384 |
| Any substance abuse (% y) | 17 (1.9) | 4 (3.7) | 18 (3.4) | 5 (5.3) | .091 |
| Obesity (% y) | 438 (47.7) | 61 (56) | 277 (52.8) | 53 (56.4) | .089 |
| CMI (mean ± SD) | 1.1 (1.7) | 1.83 (2.0) | 0.75 (1.3) | 0.99 (1.8) | <.000 |
| OTC NSAID use (% y) | 697 (24.1) | 17 (15.6) | 118 (22.5) | 24 (25.5) | .224 |
| PT referral (% y) | 185 (20.2) | 23 (21.1) | 150 (28.6) | 34 (36.2) | <.000 |
SD, standard deviation; HCU, high clinic utilization; CMI, comorbidity index; OTC, over the counter; NSAID, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory; PT, physical therapy; % y, % yes.