A Relationship Between Mortality and Eating Breakfast and Fiber

Article Figures & Data

Table 1.

Demographic Characteristics of 1999–2002 NHANES Participants Aged 40 Years or Older By Breakfast Eating Status (n=5761)

Characteristics	Breakfast Eater (n=4778)	Non-breakfast Eater (n=983)	P value^*
Characteristics	% (95% CI)	% (95% CI)	P value^*
Sex
Male	46.6 (45.2-48.0)	48.8 (44.5-53.0)	.34
Female	53.4 (52.0-54.8)	51.2 (47.0-55.5)
Race
Non-Hispanicwhite	78.8 (75.5-82.0)	63.9 (58.5-69.2)	<.0001^{^‖}
Non-Hispanicblack	8.3 (6.1-10.5)	17.9 (13.1-22.7)
Hispanic	9.5 (6.2-12.8)	13.2 (6.7-19.7)
Other	3.5 (2.5-4.4)	5.0 (2.3-7.7)
Education
≥High school	78.9 (76.8-80.9)	65.8 (61.8-69.9)	<.0001^{^‖}
<High school	21.1 (19.1-23.2)	34.2 (30.1-38.2)
Diabetes
Yes	13.4 (12.0-14.9)	10.1 (7.8-12.4)	.02^{^‡}
No	86.6 (85.1-88.0)	89.9 (87.6-92.2)
Hypertension
Yes	60.1 (57.2-63.0)	55.2 (50.5-59.9)	.01^{^‡}
No	39.9 (37.0-42.8)	44.8 (40.1-49.5)
Cardiovascular disease
Yes	9.9 (8.5-11.4)	11.0 (8.2-13.8)	.46
No	90.1 (88.6-91.5)	89.0 (86.2-91.8)
	Mean (95% CI)	Mean (95% CI)	P value^{^†}
Age	57.5 (56.9-58.1)	53.0 (51.9-54.0)	<.0001^{^‖}
Body mass index	28.4 (28.0-28.8)	29.1 (28.4-29.9)	.04^{^‡}
Fiber intake	16.9 (16.1-17.7)	12.8 (12.0-13.6)	<.0001^{^‖}
Calorie intake	2041.1 (2005.8-2076.4)	1871.1 (1798.5-1943.8)	.0001^{^‖}

CI, confidence interval; NHANES, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey.
↵* P value was estimated from Chi-square analysis.
↵† P value was estimated from regression analysis.
↵‡ P <0.05.
§ P <0.01.
↵‖ P <0.001.

Table 2.

Unadjusted and Adjusted Hazard Ratio for All-Cause Mortality and Cardiovascular Mortality (n=5761)

Table 3.

Unadjusted and Adjusted Hazard Ratio for All-Cause Mortality and Cardiovascular Mortality Among Breakfast Eaters (n=4778)

Table 4.

Unadjusted and Adjusted Hazard Ratio for All Cause of Mortality and Cardiovascular Mortality Among Non–Breakfast Eaters (n=983)

Table 5.

Unadjusted and Adjusted Hazard Ratio for All-Cause Mortality and Cardiovascular Mortality On Breakfast Eating Status and Fiber Intake (n=5761)

Models	Total Mortality (n = 2027)		Cardiovascular Mortality (n = 469)
Models	Hazard Ratio (95% CI)	P value^*	Hazard Ratio (95% CI)	P value^*
Unadjusted
Breakfast & fiber
Breakfast eater-high fiber	0.73 (0.61-0.88)	.002^{^‡}	0.74 (0.49-1.13)	.15
Breakfast eater-low fiber	–		–
Non-breakfast eater-high fiber	0.71 (0.40-1.28)	.24	0.89 (0.33-2.44)	.82
Non-breakfast eater-low fiber	0.96 (0.80-1.14)	.61	1.28 (0.93-1.74)	.12
Multivariable-adjusted
Breakfast & fiber
Breakfast eater-high fiber	0.79 (0.66-0.95)	.02^{^†}	0.82 (0.50-1.35)	.42
Breakfast eater-low fiber	–		–
Non-breakfast eater-high fiber	0.84 (0.45-1.57)	.57	1.28 (0.45-3.61)	.63
Non-breakfast eater-low fiber	1.53 (1.27-1.86)	<.0001^{^§}	2.38 (1.66-3.40)	<.0001^{^§}
Age	1.08 (1.07-1.09)	<.0001^{^§}	1.10 (1.09-1.12)	<.0001^{^§}
Sex
Male	–		–
Female	0.68 (0.59-0.78)	<.0001^{^§}	0.53 (0.41-0.68)	<.0001^{^§}
Race
Non-Hispanic white	–		–
Non-Hispanic black	1.13 (0.90-1.42)	.29	1.29 (0.84-1.99)	.24
Hispanic	0.85 (0.66-1.08)	.17	0.92 (0.56-1.51)	.73
Other	0.74 (0.40-1.37)	.33	0.28 (0.07-1.16)	.08
Body mass index	0.99 (0.98-1.01)	.42	0.99 (0.97-1.03)	.75
Education
≥High school	–		–
<High school	1.28 (1.12-1.47)	.0007^{^§}	1.09 (0.76-1.56)	.63
Diabetes
Yes	1.43 (1.22-1.68)	<.0001^{^§}	1.94 (1.38-2.71)	.0004^{^§}
No	–		–
Hypertension
Yes	1.28 (1.13-1.46)	.0004^{^§}	2.11 (1.28-3.50)	.005^{^‡}
No	–		–
Cardiovascular disease
Yes	1.63 (1.35-1.97)	<.0001^{^§}
No	–		–
Daily calorie intake	1.00 (1.00-1.00)	.87	1.00 (1.00-1.00)	.90